Yik, $\**y-h, \tZ*s y. J*± .>* i&M ***rk^. Jf Journal of tDe Ropal microscopical Society CONTAINING ITS TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS AND A SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO ZOOXjOG-^' -A.3ST3D BOTANY (principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia) MICEOSCOPY, Sec EDITED BY R. G. HEBB, M.A. M.D. F.R.C.P. Physician Pathologist to Westminster Hospital WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF THE PUBLICATION COMMITTEE AND J. ARTHUR THOMSON, M.A. F.R.S.E. Regius Professor of Natural History in the University of Aberdeen A. N. DISNEY, M.A. B.So. FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY AND A B. RENDLE, M.A. D.Sc. F.L.S. J. J. DOUGLAS, M.D. F.R.C.P.E. Assistant in Botany, British Museum Minimis paribus, per totum Naturae campum, certitudo omnis innititur quas qui fugit pariter Naturam fugit. — Linnaus. FOR THE YEAR 1904 TO BE OBTAINED AT THE SOCIETY'S ROOMS, 20 HANOVER SQUARE, LONDON, W. of Messrs. WILLIAMS & NORGATE, 14 Henrietta Street, London, W.C. and ok Messrs. DULAU & CO., 37 Soho Square, London, W. 9 + 9 THE togal Jjtiq0swp:al Established in 1839. Incorporated by Eoyal Charter in 1866. The Society was established for the promotion of Microscopical and Biological Science by the communication, discussion, and publication of observa- tions and discoveries relating to (1) improvements in the construction and mode of application of the Microscope, or (2) Biological or other subjects of Microscopical Besearch. It consists of Ordinary, Honorary, and Ex-officio Fellows of either sex. Ordinary Fellows are elected on a Certificate of Becommendation signed by three Ordinary Fellows, setting forth the names, residence, and description of the Candidate, of whom the first proposer must have personal knowledge. The certificate is read at two General Meetings, and the Candidate balloted for at the second Meeting. The Admission Fee is 21. 2s., paid at the time of election, and the Annual Subscription is 21. 2s., payable on election, and subsequently in advance on 1st January in each year, but the Annual Subscriptions may be compounded for at any time for 31/. 10s. Fellows elected at a meeting subsequent to that in February are only called upon for a proportionate part of the first year's subscription. The annual Subscription of Fellows permanently residing abroad is 1/. lis. 6cL or a reduction of one-fourth. Honorary Fellows (limited to 50), consisting of persons eminent in Microscopical or Biological Science, are elected on the recommendation of five Ordinary Fellows and the approval of the Council. Ex-officio Fellows (limited to 100), consisting of the Bresidents for the time being of any Societies having objects in whole or in part similar to those of the Society, are elected on the recommendation of ten Ordinary Fellows and the approval of the Council. The Council, in whom the management of the property and affairs of the Society is vested, is elected annually, and is composed of the Bresident, four Vice-Bresidents, Treasurer, two Secretaries, and twelve other Ordinary Fellows. The Meetings are held on the third Wednesday in each month, from October to June, at 20 Hanover Square, W. (commencing at 8 p.m.). Visitors are admitted by the introduction of Fellows. The Journal, containing the Transactions and Broceedings of the Society, and a Summary of Current Besearches relating to Zoology and Botany (principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), MicroscojDy, &c, is published bi-monthly, and is forwarded post-free to all Ordinary and Ex-officio Fellows residing in countries within the Bostal Union. The Library, with the Instruments, Apparatus, and Cabinet of Objects, is open for the use of Fellows daily (except Saturdays), from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. It is closed for four weeks during August and September. Forms of proposal for Felloivship, and any further information, may be obtained by application to the Secretaries, or Assistant-Secretary, at the Library of the Society, 20 Hanover Square, W. a 2 patron HIS MAJESTY THE KING. * Elected' •Sir Eichard Owen, K.C.B. D.C.L. M.D. LL.D. F.R.S. 1840-1 John Lindley, Ph.D. F.R.S 1842-3 *Thomas Bell, F.R.S 1844-5 *James Scott Bowerbank, LL.D. F.R.S 1846-7 •George Busk, F.R.S 1848-9 * Arthur Farre, M.D. F.R.S 1850-1 •George Jackson, M.R.C.S 1852-3 * William Benjamin Carpenter, C.B. M.D. LL.D. F.R.S. . . 1854-5 * George Shadbolt 1856-7 *Edwin Lankester, M.D. LL.D. F.R.S 1858-9 •John Thomas Quekett, F.R.S 1860 •Robert James Farrants, F.R.C.S 1861-2 •Charles Brooke, M.A. F.R.S 1863-4 •James Glaisher, F.R.S 1865-6-7-8 *Rev. Joseph Bancroft Reade, M.A. F.R.S 1869-70 •William Kitchen Parker, F.R.S 1871-2 •Charles Brooke, M.A. F.R.S 1873-4 Henry Clifton Sorby, LL.D. F.R.S 1875-6-7 *Henry James Slack, F.G.S 1878 Lionel S. Beale, M.B. F.R.C.P. F.R.S 1879-80 •Peter Martin Duncan, M.B. F.R.S 1881-2-3 Rev. William Hy. Dallinger, M.A. LL.D. F.R.S... 1884-5-6-7 •Charles Thos. Hudson, M.A. LL.D. (Cantab.), F.R.S. 1888-9-90 Robert Braithwaite, M.D. M.R.C.S 1891-2 Albert D. Michael, F.L.S 1893-4-5-6 Edward Milles Nelson ,.,,... 1897-8-9 William Carruthers, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S 1900-1 Henry Woodward, LL.D. F.R.S. F.G.S. F.Z.S 1902-3- * Deceased. COUNCIL. Elected 20th January, 1904. Jgresibent. Dijkinfeld Henry Scott, M.A. Ph.D. F.E.S. F.L.S. $kc-|]restbents. *A. D. Michael, F.L.S. *E. M. Nelson. Henry George Plimmer, M.R.C.S. L.S.A. F.L.S. Henry Woodward, LL.D. F.R.S. F.G.S. F.Z.S. treasurer. J. J. Vezey. Secretaries. Eev. W. H. Dallinger, LL.D. D.Sc. D.C.L. F.E.S. E. G. Hebb, M.A. M.D. F.E.C.P. (Drbmarir numbers of Council. Jas. Mason Allen. Wynne E. Baxter, J.P. F.G.S. F.E.G.S. Conrad Beck. Eev. Edmund Carr, M.A., F.E.Met.S. *A. N. Disney, M.A. B.Sc J. W. H. Eire, M.D. F.E.S. (Edin.) *George C. Karop, M.E.C.S. The Eight Hon. Sir Ford North, P.C., F.E.S. Thomas H. Powell. Percy E. Eadley. *Charles F. Eousselet. * Members of the Publication Committee. LIBRARIAN. CURATOR. Percy E. Eadley. Charles F. Eousselet. ASSISTANT SECRETARY. F. A. Parsons. CONTENTS. TRANSACTIONS OF TEE SOCIETY. PAGH I —On the Structure and Affinities of the Genus Porosphaera, Steinmann. By George J. Hinde, Ph.D. F.R.S. (Plates' I. and II.) 1 II.— Microscopic Resolution : Note on a point in Lord Rayleigh's Paper of 1896. By Professor J. D. Everett, F.R.S. 26 III. — The Mouth-parts of the Nemocera,and their Relation to the other Families inDiptera. By W. Wesche, F.R.M.S. (Plates II1.-VIII.) .. .. 2S IV.— The President's Address : The Evolution of Vertebrate Animals in Time. By Dr. Henry Woodward, F.R.S 137 V.— On the Vertical Illuminator. By Edward _M. Nelson 1K5 VI.— The Influence of the Antipoint in the Microscopic Image shown Graphi- cally. By Edward M. Nelson. (Figs. 47 and 48.) 2G9 VII.— On a Microscope with Geometric Slides. By Keith Lucas. (Figs. 49-53.) 272 VIII.— On Certain New Methods of Measuring the Magnifying Power of the Microscope and of its Separate Elements. By A. E. Wright, M.D. (Fig. 54.) 279 IX.— A Direct Proof of Abbe's Theorems on the Microscopic Resolution of Gratings. By Prof. J. D. Everett, F.R.S 38 X.— Report on the Recent Foraminifera of the Malay Archipelago collected by Mr. A. Durrand, F.R.M.S.— Part XVI. By Fortescue William Millett, F.R.M.S. (Plate X.) 489 XL— Report on the Recent Foraminifera of the Malay Archipelago collected by Mr. A. Durrand, F.R.M.S.— Part XVII. (Conclusion). By Fortescue William Millett, F.R.M.S. (Plate XL) 597 XII. — Theories of Microscopical Vision : a Vindication of the Abbe Theory. By A. E. Conrady, F.R.A.S. F.R.M.S. (Figs. 95-101) 610 Vlll CONTENTS. NOTES. PAGE On the Influence on Images of Gratings of Phase Difference amongst their Spectra. By Julius Rheinberg 088 An Attachment for Reading the Lines in a Direct-vision Spectroscope. By E. B. Stringer, B.A, F.R.M.S. (Fig. G3.) 390 On a Method of Obtaining Monochromatic Ultra-violet Light. By E. B. Stringer, B.A., F.R.M.S 392 On Grayson's 120,000 Band-Plate. By Edward M. Nelson 393 On Nelson's New Formula Amplifier. By A. A. C. Eliot Merlin 396 On the Use of the Esculin Screen in Photomicrography. By Frederic E. Ives 631 OBITUARY. Charles Thomas Hudson, MA. LL.D. F.B.S., Hon. F.R.M.S. 1828-1903. ■ .. 48 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES Relating to Zoology and Botany (principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), Microscopy, &c, including Original Communications from Fellows and Others.* 50, 167, 289 398, 507, 635 ZOOLOGY. VERTEBRATA. a. Embryology. Castlf, W. E. — MendeV s Law of Heredity 50 Wintrebkkt, P. — Regeneration of Hind Limbs and Tail in Amphibia 53 Bouin, P., & P. Ancel — Interstitial Cells of the Mammalian Testicle 53 Browne, F. B. — Ova and Larvse of Fishes 54 Schultze, Oskar — Determination of Sex 167 Kouschelt, E., & K. Heideb — General Embryology 167 Hickson, S. J. — Mechanics of Development 167 Kkasan, Franz — Conversational JEtiology 168 Rejsek. J. — Uterine Implantation of the Ovum of Spermophilus citillus 168 Dubuisson, M. — Normal Degeneration of Egg* not Liberated 168 Ballowitz, E. — Spermatozoa of DUcoglossus pictus 168 Phisalix, C. — Correlation between Poison-Gland and Ovary in Toad 168 Hubrecht, A. A. W. — Development of Tarsius Spectrum 169 Mencl, M. — Development of Lens 169 Peter, Karl — Notes on Development of Lizard 169 Punnett, R. C. — Nutrition and Sex Determination in Man 289 Copeman, S. M., & F. G. Parsons — Sex of Mice 290 Cuenot, L. — Heredity of Pigmentation in Mice 290 Vries, Hugo De — Fertilisation and Hybridisation 290 * In order to make the Contents complete, the papers printed in the ' Transactions ' and the Notes printed in the 'Proceedings' are included here. CONTENTS. IX PAGE "Wilson, E. B. — Maturation of Germ-Cells and Mendel's Law 290 Ancel, P., & P. Bouin — Interstitial Testicular Gland and Secondary Sex Characters 290 Bouin, P., & P. Ancel — Interstitial Testicular Gland 291 Shattock, S. G., & C. G. Seligmann — Relation of Secondary Sexual Characters to an Internal Secretion by the Testicle .. 291 Branca, A. — Testicle and Spermatic Duct* of Lemurs in Captivity 291 Morse, Max — Transmission of Acquired Characters 292 Peter, Karl — Gastrulation in Lizards , 292 Houssay, F. — Carnivorous Foivls and their Fecundity 292 Sandes, F. P. — Corpus luteum of Ttasyurus viverrinus 292 Holmes, S. J. — Problem of Form Regulation 293 Wendelstadt — Regeneration of Bone and Cartilage . 293 Harrison, K. G. — Development of the Sense Organs of the lateral line in Amphibia 293 Kling, 0. A. — Development of Lymph Glands in Man 293 Szily, A. v. — Origin of the Vitreous Humour 294 Phillips, Everett F. — Occurrence of Parthenogenesis 398 Bonne, C. — Development of Veins of the Liver in the Rabbit and Sheep 399 Meyer, R. — Nephridial Canals in Guinea-Pig 399 Schaper, A. — Lens Development under Abnormal Conditions 399 Druner, L. — Structure and Development of the Middle Ear in Man and Mouse . . 399 Wilder, H. H. — Early Development of Desmoguathus fusca 400 Hartog, Marcus — Some Problems of Reproduction .. .. 507 Schreiner, A. & K. E. — Maturation Divisions in Vertebrates 508 Perez, Ch. — Phagocytic Absorption of Ova by Follicle Cells in Fasting Newt .. .. 509 Bataillon, E. — Parthenogenetic Development of Lamprey's Ova 509 Bohn, Georges — Experiments on the Developing Ova of the Frog 509 Eggeling, H. — Development of Human Milk-Glands 509 Kjellberg, Knut — Development of Mandibular Articulation 509 Argand, R. — Transition between Internal Iliac and Umbilical Arteries in the New-born 510 Kolliker, A. von — Development of Nerve Fibres 510 Reinhardt, Ad. — Ey pochor da of Salamandr a Maculosa 510 Druner, L. — Visceral Arches of Urodela 510 Hall, R. \V. — Development of Mesonephros and M idler ian Ducts in Amphibia .. 511 Swaen, A., & A. Brachet — Development of Layers and Organs in the Terminal Bud and Tail of Teleost Embryos 511 Nicolas, A. — Development of Pancreas, Liver and Spleen in the Sturgeon . . .. 511 Moser, Fanny — Development of the Swim-Bladder 512 »Schultz, E. — Degeneration in Relation to Regeneration 512 Fauset, V. — Viviparity and Parasitism 513 Kerr, J. Graham — Development of Motor Nerve- Trunks and Myotomes in Lepido- siren 635 Morgan, T. H. — Influence of Constant Agitation on the Development of the Toad's Egg .. . 635 .Schaper, A. — Influence of Radium-Rays and Radium-Emanation on Development and Regeneration 636 D'Evant, T. — Rudimentary Amnion in Selachians 636 Hilton, David C. — Development of Liver in the Pig 636 Smith, H. M. — Breeding Habits of Yellow- BeHied Terrapin 636 Wolterstorff, W. — Hybridisation of Triton marmoratus and Triton cristatus . . 636 Eycleshymer, A. C. — Bilateral Symmetry in Egg of Necturus .. 637 Rawitz, B. — Inheritance of Mental Qualities in Man 637 b. Histology. Fibich, Richard — Histology of Hyaline Cartilage 54 Schulthess-Schindler, Von— Xerothermic Localities 54 Fischer, Otto — Human Locomotion 54 Elliot-Smith, G. — Transitory Tissues of Human Brain 55 Osburn, Raymond C — Adaptations to Aquatic Life in Mammals 55 Jolly, L. — Oxidation of Glucose in Mammalian Blood 55 Salensky, W. — The Phylogeny of Elephants 55 X CONTENTS. PAGE Guldberg, Gustav — Migrations of Right WMles 55 Macoun, John — Canadian Birds 56 Werner, F. — West Asian Reptiles and Batrachians 56 Volz, W. — Sumatra Fishes > 56 „ Sumatra Lizards 56 Launoy, L. — Secretory Phenomena in Poison-Glands and Digestive Glands .. .. 169 „ „ Nuclear Changes during Secretion 170 Bensley, R. R. — Brunner's Glands 170 „ „ Cardiac Glands of Mammals 170 Haack, W. — Buccal Gland of Lampreys 170 Beguin, F. — Oesophageal Glands in Reptiles 171 Marcelin, R. H. — Histogenesis of the Intestinal Epithelium in the Frog .. .. 171 Marceau, F. — Cardiac Muscle Fibres 171 Pondrelli, Margherita — Egg-Tooth in Sauropsida 171 Baum & Thienel — Minute Structure of Blood-Vessels 171 Bashford, E. F., & J. A. Murray — Zoological Distribution, Mitoses, and Trans- missibility of Cancer 294 „ „ „ „ Conjugation of Resting Nuclei in an Epithe- lioma of the Mouse 295 Boveri, T. — Behaviour of the Protoplasm in Monocentric Mitoses 295 Radtmann, H. — The Morphology of the Glands of Bartholin in Mammals .. .. 295 Glinski, M. — Peptic Glands of the Superior Region of the Oesophagus in Man .. 296 Bernard, H. M. — Studies in the Retina 296 Dale, H. H. — Islets of Langerhans of the Pancreas 296 Schafer, E. A. — Ciliary Movement 400 Baum & Thienel — Structure of Mammalian Blood-vessels 400 Dogiel, A. S. — Nerve-endings of Human Shin 400 Ballowitz, E. — Olfactory Organ of the Lamprey .. 401 Campbell, A. W. — Histological Studies on Cerebral Localisation 401 Townsend, A. B. — Histology of the Light Organs of Photinus marginellus .. .. 401 Pacaut, Maurice — Twin Nuclei in Various Types of Cells in the Guinea-Pig .. 513 Bates, G. A. — Histology of Digestive Tract of Amblystoma Punctatum 513 Du Bois, C. C. — Granule Cells in Mucosa of Pig's Intestine 514 Fuhrmann, F. — Minute Structure of Supra-renal of Guinea- Pig 514 Bokcea, J. — Kidney of Male Elasmobranchs 514 Bocin & Ancel — Interstitial Tissue of Testis 514 Hartog, M. — Models of Cellular Mitoses 637 Levi, Giuseppe — Comparative Histology of Pancreas 637 Lewis, F. T. — The Question of Sinusoids 637 8argent, P. E. — Optic Reflex Apparatus in Cyclostomes and Fishes 638 Cecchukelli, G. — Sensory Nerve-endings in Human Tongue 638 Coco, A. M. — The Fuchsinophile Granules of Spinal Ganglia Cells 639 Grynfeltt, E. — Supra-renal Capsule of Amphibians 639 c. General. Henri, V. — Digestive Ferments in Cephalopods, Echinoderms, and Tunicates .. 56 Soourfield, D. J. — Lake Survey 56 Woodward, H. — President's Address: The Evolution of Vertebrate Animals in Time 137 Lydekkar, R. — Zoological Essays 171 Lancaster, E. Ray — Economic Zoology 172 Lickley, J. Dunlop — Variations in Human Ribs . . 173 Sacharoff, N. — Function of Iron in Metabolism and Fermentations ■■ 173 Cade ac & Maignon — Production of Glucose by Animal Tissues 173 Batelli, F. — Alleged Alcoholic Fermentation in Animal Tissues 173 Abelods, J. E., & J. Aloy — Occurrence of an Animal Diastase at once Oxidising and Reducing 173 Olivier, E. — Viviparous Lizard' s Prolific Multiplication . . 173 Ritter, W. E. — Habits of the Arboreal Urodele Autodax lugubris 174 Couvreur, E. — Respiration in Torpedo 174 CONTENTS. XI PAGF. Tullberg, Ttcho — Labyrinth of Fishes 174 Ewart, J. Cossar — Wild Horses 174 Pocock, K. I. — Coloration of the Quaggas 175 Murray, James — Plankton of Scottish Lakes .. 175 Tattersall, W. M. — Ceylonese Cephalochorda 175 Vire, Armand — Influence of Light and Darkness 297 Chapman, H. C. — Origin of Primates 297 Mandoul, H. — Tegumentary Colorations 297 Citelli, J. — Supra-cricoid Cartilage in Man 298 Smith, G. E. — Occipital Region of Cerebral Hemisphere in Man and Apes .. .. 298 Chaine, J. — Mandibulo-auricular Muscle 21)9 Mitchell, W. — Dentition of the Elephant 299 Beddard, F. E.— The Phyhgeny of the Boidie .. 299 Audige, J. — Infectious Exophthahnia of Freshwater Fishes 299 Sabatier, Armand — Limbs of Holocephali and Dipnoi 299 Hamburger, R. — Paired Fins of Fishes 299 Chaine, J. — Myology of Chondropterygian Fishes 300 Bodlenger, G. A. — Sub-Orders and Families of Teleostean Fishes 300 Haack, W. — Glands of the Mouth- Cavity of Petromyzon 300 Dean, Bashford — Japanese Myxinoids 300 Murie, James — Thames Fisheries 300 Deflandre, C. — Adipo-hepatic Function in Invertebrates 301 Diblin, L. I. — Arboreal Adaptations .' .. 402 Miller, Gerrit S., Jun. — Seventy New Malayan Mammals 402 Lickley, J. D. — Seventh and Eighth Sternal Ribs in Man 402 Abel, O. — Asymmetry of Skull in Toothed Whales 402 Boenninghaus, G. — Eir of Toothed Whales 402 True, F. W. — Photographs of Living Finback Whales from Newfoundland .. .. 403 Shufeldt, R. W. — Affinities of the Pygopodes 403 Martin, Rudolf — Comparative Osteology and Phyhgeny of the Columbiformes .. 403 Osborn, H. F. — Reclassification (f the Reptilia 403 Paracca, M. G. — New European Lizard 404 Werner, Franz — Notes on Reptiles 404 AVandglleck, B. — An Abnormal Tortoise 404 Hay, O. P. — Existing Genera of Trionychidsz 404 Regan, C. T. — Phytogeny of the Teleostomi 405 Mitchell, E. G. — Oral Breathing-Valves of Teleostei 405 Poppa, C anna M. L. — Gill- Arches of Mursenidm 405 Meek, S. E. — Fresh-water Fishes of Mexico 405 Barrett-Hamilton, G. E. H. — Sub-Species of Mustelidse 406 Hutton, F. W.— Fauna of New Zealand 406 Steuer, A.— Plankton of Gulf of Trieste 406 Smith, Walter — Why is the Human Ear Immobile? 515 Damany, P. Le — Homology of Olecranon and Patella 515 „ „ Defect of Human Hip-Joint .. 515 Stordy, R. J. — Domestication of Zebras 515 Rehn, J. — Revision of the Chiropteran Genus Macrotus 516 Eigenmann, Carl H., & Clarence Kennedy — Variation Notes 516 Freund, Ludwig — Osteology of the Dugong Flipper 516 Gessard, C. — Pigment of Supra-renal Capsules 516 Arnold, J. — Fat Synthesis by Mucous Membranes . . 516 Doyon & Jouty — Ablation of Parathyroids in Birds 516 Raspail, Xavier — Asymmetrical Development of FowVs Skull 516 Oberholser, H. C. — Monograph of Genus Dendrocincla 517 Muhse, Effa Funk — Eyes of a Blind Snake 517 Overton, E. — Osmotic Properties of Amphibian Skin 517 Kingsley, J. S., & F. W. Thyng — Hypophysis in Ambly stoma 517 Winslow, G. M. — Abnormalities in Urodela 517 Gallimabd, J. — Albumin Extracted from Frog's Ova 518 Borcea, J. — Oviducal Gland of Elasmobranchs 518 Eastman, C. R. — Descriptions of Bolca Fishes 518 Linder, Charles — Pelagic Fauna of the Lake of Bret 518 Xll CONTENTS. PAGE Hudleston, W. H. — Origin of the Marine (Halolimnic) Fauna of Lake Tanganyika 518 Foisbes, S. A. — Food of Fishes, Birds, and Insects .. .. 510 Bohn, G. — Phototropism of Convohitu and Nereids 519 Goodrich, Edwin S. — Dermal Fin-rays of Fishes 519 .IaiiGer, A. — The Physiology of the Swim- Bladder of Fishes 520 Fuhrbinger, K. — Notes on Dipnoan Cranium ..' 521 Garman, Samuel — Chimxroids 521 Eoule, Louis— Pisciculture 521 „ „ Evolution of Atherinx in Fresh Water 521 Zarnik, Boris — Segmental Veins in Amphioxus 522 Carlsson, A. — Anatomy of Noturyctes typhlops 039 Borinson, B. — Constrictions and 'Dilatations of the Ureter (J39 Lyon, M. W., Jun. — Hares and their Allies 640 Duerst, J. Ulrich— Influence of Unilateral Eorn-Growth on Cranial Characters 640 Lonnberg, Einar — Compound Ehamphotheca of Birds 640 Smith, G.— Middle Ear and Columella of Birds 640 Carlton, F. — Colour Change in Anolis Carolinensis 641 Phisalix. C. — Natural Immunity of Vipers 641 Werner, Fr. — Reptiles and Amphibians of Asia Minor 641 Pee, P. van — Limbs of Am phi wua 641 Pellegrin, J. — Fishes of Chilian Coast 642 Jordan, D. S., & J. O. Snyder — Deep- Water Fishes of Japan 642 Bean, B. A. — Pelican Fish from the Pacific 642 Gill, Theodore — Umbrids or Mud-Minnows 642 Gley, E. — Toxic Action of Serum of Torpedo marmorata 642 Vaillant, Leon — Mitsukurina Owstoni 643 Scott, A. — Parasites of Fishes 643 Marsh, C. D. — Plankton of Wisconsin Lakes 643 Tunicata. Pizon, A. — Development of Diplosomidx 57 Henschkn, F. — Ova of Crustaceans and Gastropods 57 Graeffe, Ed. — Fauna of the Gulf of Trieste 57 Julin, Charles — Development of Branchial Apparatus in Tunicata .. .. 301 Korotneff, A. — Polymorphism of Dolchinia 301 Gutherz, S. — Self-Fertilisation and Cross-Fertilisation in Solitary Ascidians .. 406 INVERTEBRATA. Stift, A. — Enemies of the Sugar Beet 176 Mollusca. Schweikart, A. — Egg-Envelopes of Cephalopods and. Chitonidse 406 «• Cephalopoda. Hoyle, W. E. — ' Albatross' Cephalopods 522 Marceau, F. — Structure of the Heart in the Common Octopus 522 Bergmann, W. — Receptaculum Seminis and Nuptial Combat in Octopus .. .. 522 y. Gastropoda. Yung, Emile — Olfactory Sense in Helix Pomaiia 57 AVettstein, Ernst — Structure of Cryptoplax larvwformis 58 Couvreur, E. — Blood of Marine Gastropods 176 Simroth, Heinkich — New Type of Gastropod 302 „ ,, Abyssinian Slugs 302 Kesteven, H. L. — Nepionic Stage in the Gastropods 303 Conklin, E. G. — Inverse Symmetry in Gastropods 303 CONTENTS. Xlll PAGE Nekrassoff, A. — Maturation and Fertilisation in Cymbulia Peronii 303 Smallwood, W. M. — Natural History of Haminea solitaria Say .. •• . •• •• 407 Grosvenor, G. H. — Nematocysts of JEolids 407 Chapman. F. — Valetozoic Pteropoda. 407 Heath, Harold — Larval Eye of Chitons 408 Nierstrasz, H. F. — Heart of Solenogastres .. .. 408 Heath, H. — Habits of Selonogastres 523 Kunkel, Karl — Habit* of the Cellar-Slug 523 15onnevie, K. — Spermatogenesis in Enteroxenos Ostergreni 523 Randles, W. B. — Anatomy and Affinities of the Trochidx 643^ Mader. M. — Muscular Fibres in Heart of Nassa reticulata 644 Gkabau, Amadeus W. — Phytogeny of Fusus and its Allies 644 Contagne, G. — Mendelian Phenomena in Gastropods 644 Wissel, Curt vox — Chitons from the Pacific 644 Fisher, W. K. — Anatomy of Lottia giga idea 644 Heath, H, & M. H. Spaulding — Anatomy of Corolla (Cymbidiopsis) spectabilis .. 645 5. Lamellibranchiata. Sassi, Moriz — Anatomy of Anomia ephippium 58 Davenport, C B. — Variations in Pecten opercidaris 176 Boutan, L. — Origin of Fine Pearls 177 Dubois, R. — Secretion of Pearls • 303 „ „ Detection of Pearls by means of X-Rays 303 Rice, E. L. — Development of the Gill in Mytilus 304 Anthony — Orientation of Trid.achnids within their Shells 304 Bhutan, L. — Origin of Fine Pearls 408 Marceau, F. — Adductor Muscles of Bivalves 523 Anthony, R. — JEtlieriidx 524 Herdman, W. A. — The Formation of Pearls .. .. 645 Davenport, C. B. — Evolution of Pecten 645 VigIer, P. — Muscular Fibre* of the Moll mean Heart 646 ^Arthropoda. Packard, A. 8. — Classification of Arthropoda 177 Carpenter, G. H. — Relationships between Classes of Arthropoda 178 Bruntz, L. — Excretion in Arthropods 304 Lankester, E. Ray — Structure and Classification of Arthropoda 524 «• Insecta. Wesche. W. — The Mouth-parts of ih<> Nemocera, and their Relation to the other Families in Diptera. (Plates III.-VIII.) 28 Fabre, J. H. — Habits and Instincts of Insects .. 58 Holmgren, N. — Viviparous Insects 59 Courvoisier, L. G. — Variations in Lycsenidx 59 Linden, Grafin von M. — Red and Yellow Pigment of Vanessa 59 8chulz, W. A. — Hymenoptera of West Indian" Islands 60 Holliday, Margaret — Ergatogynic Ants .. 60 Gessner, E. Frey. — Males of Andrena 60 Harris, W. H. — Habits of the Drone- Fly 60 Taylor, T. H. — Habits of Chironomus 60 Imms, A. D. — Marine Chironomid New to Britain 61 Conklin. Edwin G. — Follicular Cells of Cricket 61 Schulz, W. A. — Pelecinidse 61 Davenport, C. B. — Collembola of the Beach 61 Thayer, A. H.. & E. B. Poulton — Protective Coloration 62 Theobald, F. V. — Economic Entomology 178 Dickel, Ferd. — Sex- Determination in Bees 179 Garbowski, Tad — Parthenogenesis in Porthesia 179 XIV CONTENTS. PAGE Bolle, J., & M. Kichter — Sleeping Sickness of Silkworms 179 Forel, A. — Ants from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands 179 Lecaillon, A — Development of Ovary of Polyxenus lagurus De Geer 179 Embleton, Alice L. — Peculiar Aphid 179 Stschelkanovzew, J. P. — Maturation in Viviparous Aphides 180 Silvestki, F. — Neapolitan Myrmecophilons Insects ISO Needham, J. (t. — Genealogical Study of Dragon-fly Wing Venation 180 PiCTBT, A. — Influence of Environment on Caterpillars .. 305 „ „ Influence of Humidity on Caterpillars 305 Anglas, Jdles — Metamorphosis or Insects 305 Porta, A. — Digestive Function in Insects 305 Ihering, H. v. — Biology of Stingless Honey-Bees of Brazil .. 305 Fielue, Adele M. — Notes on Ants 306 Forel, Auguste — Myrmecological Notes 306 Gal, Jules — Oviposition in Bombyx mori 306 Tower, TV. L.— Wings of. Beetles 306 Cantin, G. — Destruction of Wilder Ova of Phylloxera by Lysol 307 Stebbing, E. P. — New Scale-Insect from India .. .. 307 Distant, W. L. — Notes on Rhynchota 307 Bougardt, J. — Luminosity of Lampyridx 307 Cholodkovsky, N. — Structure of Pediculi due- 307 Pussig, H. — Gall-Formation 408 Moiuue, F. D. — Male Terminal Segment* and Armatures in the Hymenopterous Genus Colletes 409 Cowan, T. W. — Natural History, Anatomy, and Physiology of the Hovey-Bee .. 409 Turner, A. J. — Australian Lepidoptera .. 409 Schwangart, F. — The Endoderm of Lepidoptera 409 Lathy. P. I. — Aberrations of Lepidoptera 409 Goeldi, Emilio A. — Mosquitoes of Para 409 Holmgren, N. — Reduction of the Head in Dipterous Larvx 409 Thienemann, A. — Anal Gills in larva of Glossoma boltoni and some Hydropsycliidse 410 Bemis, Florence E. — Mealy-Winged Flies of California 410 Peal, H. W. — Oriental Aleurodidm .. '.. ..' • 410 Mum, F., & D. Sharp — Egg-Cases and Early Stages of some Cassididse .. .. 410 Williams, C. E. — Life-History of Gongylus gongyloides 410 Dawydoff, C. — Phagocytic Organs in Gryllidas 410 Enderlein, Gunther — Neio Copeognatha .. .. 411 Kellogg, Vernon L. — New Mallophaga 411 Kellogg, V. L., & B. L. Chapman — Mallophaga from Hawaiian Islands .. .. 411 Stebbing, E. P. — Thanasimus in the Himalayas 411 Plotnikow, W. — Moulting Processes in Insects 5"J5 "Vigier, Pierre — Accommodation-apparatus in Compound Eyes 525 Dusmet y Alonso, Jose M. — Wasps of Spain 526 Dickel, Otto — Development of Bees' Eggs 526 Wasschew, J. W. — Parthenogenesis in Telenomus 526 Holmgren, N. — Formica exsecta as Hill-builders in Swamps 526 Packard, A. S. — Metamorphoses of Saturnian Moths 527 Perez, Ch. — Imaginal Adipose Tissue in Muscidse .. .. 527 Kxjnstler, J., & J. Chaine — Case of Dimorphism in Cecidomyidse 527 Longchamps, Maurice de Selys — First Abdominal Appendage in the Meal- Worm 527 Felt, E. P., & L. J. Joutel — Monograph of Genus Saperda 527 Carpenter, G. H., & W. Evans — New British Spring-Tails 527 Silvestri, Filippo — New Machilidse 528 Binnenthal, Fr. Kichter von — Enemies of Roses 528 Webster, F. M. — Habits and Development of Neocerata rhodophaga 528 „ „ Life-History, Habits and Taxonomic Relations of a New Species of Oberea 528 Picard, F. — Habits of Sphex .. 646 Handlirsch, A. — Insect Evolution in Relation to Plants 646 „ ,. Convergence Pheiwmena in Insects 6iG Bauer, V. — Metamorphosis of Central Nervous System in Insects 647 Mollinsox, Th. — Nutritive Role of Follicular Epithelium in Melolontha vulgaris .. 617 CONTENTS. XV PAGE Breed, R. S. — Muscle-Clianges in Beetle (Thymalua marginicollis) during Meta- morphosis 64/ Enderlein, G. — Weevils of Crozet Inlands •• •• 648 Tutt, J. W. — Natural History of British Lepidoptera .. .. 648 Austen, E. E. — '1 'setse-Flies 64S Chevrel, Rene — Neto Genus of Marine Diptera 648 d'Herculais, J. Kunckel — Dipterous Parasites of Lepidoptera 648 Schulz, W. A. — Diptera as Ectoparasites on South American Lepidoptera .. 649 Davydoff, C. — Phagocytic Apparatus of Cleandrus graniger 649 Matsumira, S. — Cercopidx of Japan .. 649 Ribaga, Constantino — Parthenogenesis in Copeognathm .. .. 649 Enderlein, G. — Nymphopsocus destructor : a new Copeognathid .. .. ■■ 649 J acobi, A.— Homoptera of North-East Africa 649 Enderlein, Gunther — Louse of Elephant-Seal ■• 649 Wassilieff, A. — Spermatogenesis of Blatta germanica 650 Agnus, M. — Palxoblattina Douvillei 650 Colves, W. D. — The Antennx- of Pulez irritans "725 l3. Myriopoda. Silvestri, F.— Littoral Myriopods ISO Hennings, C. — Sense of Smell in Myriopods 411 Silvestri, F. — New Genera of Scutigeridx 412 5. Arachnida. Pocock, R. I. — Stridulation in Scorpions 62 Lewis, R. T.—New Chelifer 62 Michael, Albert D. — British Tyroglyphid;e. 181 Silvestri, F. — New Species of Kaznenia from Italy 181 Poljansky, I. — Development of Scorpions 308 Heim, F., & A. Oudemans — Two new forms of Trombidium parasitic in Man . . 308 Thor — Comparative Anatomy of Mites 308 Franz, V. — Structure of Heart and Origin of Blood-Cells in Spiders 412 Heymons, R. — Wing-like Lateral Organs of Solifugx 412 Smith, F. P. — Spiders of the Sub-Family Erigoninx .. : 412 Osborn, H. — Grasping Organs in Pediculidse 529 Cole, Leon J. — Pycnogonida of West Coast of North America 529 Wolcott, R. H. — North American Species of Limnesia 650 Witte, C. J. — Notostigmata : New Sub-order of Acari 650 Daday, E. von — Hungarian Species of Eylais 650 Fritsch, Anton— Palxozoic Arachnida 651 e. Crustacea. Gurney, Robert — Larval Forms of Crangonidse 63 Gurney, R. — Cladoceran new to Britain 63 Steuer, Adolf — New Copepod Genus .. .\ 63 Graeter, A.— Copepoda of Basel .. 63 Soourfield, D. J. — British Freshwater Entomostraca 63 Lehmann, Harriet — Variation in Cyclops 63 Calman, W. T. — Classification of Malacostraca 181 Labbe, Alphonse — Spermatozoa of Decapods 181 Cuenot, L. — Phagocytic Organ of Decapods 181 Hansen, H. J. — New Family of Amphipods 182 Small-wood, Mabel E. — Study of the Beach-Flea 182 Wilson, C. B.—Argulidse 182 Norman, A. M. — Calanoid Copepoda 182 Pcnnett, R. C— Proportion of Sexes in Shore-Crab 308 Holmes, S. J. — Sex Recognition among Amphipods 309 XVI CONTENTS. PAGE Senna, A. — New Hyperiid Amphipod 309 Stingelin, Th. — Hotopedidx 309 Wolf, E. — Winter Eggs in Copepods 30!> Lankester, E. Ray — Modification of Eye-Peduncles in Cymonomus 412 Andrews, E. A. — Breeding Habits of American Crayfish 413 Bouvier, E. L. — Mutations of Certain Atyids 414 Scourfield, D. J. — British Fresh-water Eniomostraca 414 Labbe, A. — Maturation Divisions in Testicle of a Lobster 529- Perez, Ch. — Isopod Parasitic in a Sacculina 530 Berndt, W. — Cryptophialus striatus, sp. n 530 Gruvel, A. — Fixation of Coronulidse in Skin of Cetaceans 530 „ „ Organ of Kcehler in Cirripeds 530 Marsh, C. Dwight — New Canthocamytus from Idaho 530 Eoster, E. — Free-swimming Copepods of Louisiana 530 Ekman, Sven — Entomostraca of Northern Swedish Mountains 651 Miculicich, Miroslav — NewLernxpod 651 Cussans, M. — Memoir on Gammarus 651 Samter, M., & W. Weltner — The Origin of Mysis, Pallasiella, and Poutoporeia .. 651 Calman, W. T. — Cave-dwelling Galatheid from the Canary Islands 652 Labbe, A. — Polyspermy and the Culture of Spermatozoids 652 Annulata. Tzuka, Akira — Neio Polygordius 64 Gerould, J. H. — Development of Phascolosoma 61 Galvagni, Egon — Histology of Ctenodrilus Clap . .. 64 Schmidt, F. — Musculature of Branchiobdella parasitica 64 Stummer-Traunfels, R. Ritter v. — Anatomy and Histology of Myzostoma .. .. 64 Ladkeyt, F. — Leucocytes anil Similar Cells in Sipunculus nudus 183 Woodworth, W. McM. — Palolo Worm of Samoa 183 Moore, J. Percy — Some Woods Hole Pelagic Polychseta 184 Bretscher, K. — Distribution of Oligochseta 184 Adams, G. P. — Negative and Positive Phototropism of the Earthworm 184 Iwanow, P. — Regeneration in Lumbriculus variegatis 184 Stolc, Antonin — Experiments in JEolosoma hemprichii 184 Malaquin, A.^Cephalisation and Metamerism in Annelids 309 Schuberg, A., & A. Schroder — Nematode in Smooth Muscle-Cells of Nephelis .. 300 Iwanow, P. — Regeneration of Trunk and Head Segments in Lumbricus variegatus.. 414 Brasil, L. — Digestive Apparatus in Polychseta 415 Soulier, Albert — Revision of Annelid Genera 415 Ramon y Cajal, Santiago— Minute Structure of Nerve-cells and Epithelial Cells in Earthworms 415 Livanow, N. — Splanchnic Musculature in Oligochseta and Hirudinea 416 Ditlevsen, Asger — Studies on Oligoilixta 531 Herubel, M. — Priapulidx of Scandinavia 531 Spiess, Camille — Digestive System of Hirudinea . . . . 531 Allen, E. J. — Structure and, Habits of Po3cilochastus 652 Goodrich, E. S. — Branchial Vessels of Sternaspis .. 652 Marenzeller, Emil von — Polynoid Symbion of Hydrocorallinse 653 Izdka, Akira — Neiv Deep-sea Polychsete • 653 Ashworth, J. H. — Memoir on Areni cola 653 Fage, L. — Nephridial Cells of Leech 653 Livanow, N . — Metamerism of Nervous System of Hirudinea 653 Nematohelminth.es. Noe, G. — Filaria immitis 1 85 Low, G. C. — Filaria perstans in relation to Sleeping Sickness 185 Runther, Max — Cerebral Ganglion and Body-Cavity of Gordiidat . 416 Goldsohmidt, R. — Radially Striated Ganglion Cells in Ascaris 416 CONTENTS. XV11 PAGK Boveri, Th. — Differences in the Chromosomes of Sister- germ-cells 531 Taniguchi, N. — Filaria Bancroft 'i 65 ( Metcalf, Haven — Nematode associated with Decay in Plants • 54 Loos, A. — Structure of Filaria loa 654 Sala, L. — Peculiar Structure of Epithelial Cells of Ovarian and Spermatic Tubes of A scar ids 654 Platyhelminthes. Chichakoff, G. — New Species of Phagocata Ledy 65 Bohn, Georges — Oscillatory Movements of Convoluta roscofensis 185 Laidlaw, F. F. — Pension of Classification of Polyclad 'J urbellarians 185 Zykoff, W.— Structure of Mesostoma nasonoffii Graff 185 Ball & Marotel — Cysticercus cellulosse on Dog's Brain 185 Zschokke, F. — Cestodes of South American Marsupials 185 Clero, W. — Parasites of Ural Birds 186 Stevens, N. M. — Development of Planaria simplUsima 310 Mattieben, E. — Early Development of Freshwater Dendrocoelida 310 Warren, E. — Structure and Development of Distomum cirrigerum 311 Bresslau, E. — Development of Turbellarians 416 Stafford, J. — Trematodes from Canadian Fishes 417 Fuhrmann, O. — Cestode with Separate Sexes 417 „ „ Fresh-water Representative of a Marine Genus of Turbellaria . . 417 Moll, Camillo — Terrestrial Planarians from North-East Africa 532 Ssinitzin, D. — Sense-Organs in Digenetic Trematodes 532 MacCallum, W. G. — Echinostomum garzettm 532 Fischoeder, F. — Three Species of Paramphistomum from Mammals 532 Janicki, C. von — Cestode* from Mammals 533 Fuhrmann, O. — A Dioecious Cextode 654 Hein, W. — Epithelium of Trematodes 655 Ward, Henry B. — Determination of Human Entozoa 655 Polyzoa. Uousselet, C. F. — Fresh-water Poly zoo'n from Rhodesia ... 417 Maple8tone, C. M. — Tertiary Polyzoa of Victoria 417 Incertse Sedis. Ikeda, Iwaji — Gonads of Phoronis 65 ineresheimer, E. — Lohmannia catenata, g. et sp. n 186 Caullery, Maurice, & Felix Mesnil — Pelmatosphmra 311 Cowles, R. P. — Body Cavities and Nephridia of Actinotrocha 418 Schultz, E. — Regeneration in Phoronis Mull eri 418 Spengel, J. W. — Ptychodera flava funafutica 418 Cowles, It. P. — Development of Blood- Vessels and Blood-Corpuscles in the Actino- trocha Larva ^ 418 Neresheimer, E. — Lohmanella catenata .. 419 Spengel, J. W. — Anatomy of Ptychodera erythrsea 533 (alvet, M. L. — Geographical Distribution of Marine Bryozoa 533 Lang, W. D. — Jurassic Polyzoa 533 Fowler, G. H. — Notes on Hhabdopleura Normani 655 Ulrich, E. 0., & B. S. Bassler— Revision of Palasozoic Bryozoa 655 Rotatoria. Bryce, David— New Species of Philodina 65 Marks, K. I., & W. Wesche— New Male Rotifers 65 Lauterborn, Bobert — Variation Cycle of Anurssa cochlear is 65 Daday, E. von — New Rotifers 66 Dec. 21st, 1904. b XV111 CONTENTS. I'AGK Hlava, Stan. — Excretory Organs in the Family Melicertidse 18n of Dr. A. W. Eowe, F.G.S. „ 3. Ditto ; loaf-shaped. Zone of JJelemnitella mucronata ; Ballard Cliff, Dorset coast. Collection of Dr. Eowe. „ 4. Ditto; cushion-shaped specimen. Zone of Bel. mucronata; Ballard Cliff. Collection of Dr. Piowe. ., 5. Ditto ; of average s ; ze. Zone of Actinocamax quadratus ; Cliff, east of Brighton. Collection of G. J. Iiinde. „ (J. Ditto; median section, showing the arrangement of the radial canals. Upper Chalk. Collection of G. J. Hinde. ,, 7. Ditto ; completely enveloped with a spieular dermal layer. Zoae of B. mucronata ; Ballard Cliff. Collection of Dr. Eowe. „ S. Ditto ; partially covered with an uneven dermal layer. Same zone and locality as the preceding. Collection of Dr. Eowe. ,, !*, 10. Ditto; loaf-shaped specimens, showing faint indications of surface grooves. Zone of Marsupites (Uintacrinui Band) ; Thanet coast. Collection of Dr. Eowe. .. 11. Pwosphasra nuciformis, v. Hagenow, sp. Viewed from above, showing the convergence of the grooves at the summit. Zone of Marsupites (Uintacrinus Band); Margate. Collection of Dr. Eowe. „ 12. Ditto; side view. Zone of A. quadratus; near Newhaven. Collection of Dr. Eowe. „ 13. Ditto; showing closely- arranged grooves. Zone of A. quadratus; Win- chester. Collection of Dr. Kowe. „ 14. Ditto; with prominent apex. Zone of A. quadratus ; Sussex coast. Col- lection of Dr. Eowe. „ 15. Ditto ; with fragments of the dermal layer. Zone of A. quadratus ; near Newhaven. Collection of Dr. Eowe. „ 10, 16a. Ditto ; viewed from above and in profile. Zone of Marsupites (Uinta- crinus Band); Thanet coast, Kent. Collection of Dr. Eowe. „ 17. Ditto; viewed from above. Same zone and locality as tho preceding. Collection of Dr. Eowe. „ 18. Ditto ; with surface grooves and ridges radiating from several centres. X 2 diam. From same zone as the preceding; Sussex coast. Col- lection of Dr. Eowe. The Genus Porosphcera, Steinmann. By George J. Hinde. 13 These tubes are generally considered to have been occupied originally by some organic body, such as the stem of a sea-weed, not capable'of preservation as fossil, round which the Porosphcera lived and grew. They are now found solidly infilled with the soft chalky matrix which can readily be extracted. A further interest is attached to these naturally perforated examples of Porosphcera from the fact that similar forms have been found in association with the remains of the " Kiver-Drift " folk, and it has been surmised * with much probability that they may have been used by them for personal adornment, such as necklaces, etc. P. IVoodwardi, Carter, is generally of a rounded form with one or more slightly projecting peaks ; the base is small, concave, and * Kigollot, Mem. sur des Instruments en Silcx, etc., Amiens, 1854, p. 16 ; Parker ami Jones, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 3, vi. (1860) p. 3D ; James Wyatt, Geologist, v. (1862) p. 233 ; T. Bupert Jones, torn, cit., p. 236 ; Sir C. Lyell, Antiquity of Man, 1863, p. 110, fig. 15 ; 4th ed., 1873, p. 165; Worthington Smith, The Primitive Savage, 1894, p. 272 ; Sir John Evans, Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain, 2nded. 1897, p. 657. Explanation of Plate I. — continued. '■ Fig. 19. Porosplaera Wocdicardi, Carter, sp. Showing the branching surface canals. X 2 diam. Zone of Hula ster subglobosus; Dover. Collection of Dr. Eowe. „ 20, 20a. Porosphrra pileolus. Thimble-shaped specimen, with a fragment .of dermal layer on the exterior ; the base (20a) showing concentric bands of growth. Zone of A. quadratus ; near Newhaven. Col- lection of Dr. Eowe. ., 21,21a. Ditto. Zone of Marsupites (JJintaerinus Band); Thauet coast. Col- lection of Dr. Eowe. ,. 22,22a. Porosphxra patelliformis, sp. n. Viewed in profile (22); the deeply concave base (22a) showing concentric lines of growth and faint radial lines. Zone of A. quadratus ; Sussex coast. Collection of Dr. Eowe. ., 23, 23a. Ditto ; a couical specimen, viewed in profile (23) ; the base with faint concentric lines of growth (23a). Zone of Marsupites {JJintaerinus Band) ; Thanet coast. Collection of Dr. Eowe. „ 24,24a. Ditto; a depressed specimen, viewed in profile (24); the base with concentric and radial lines (24a). Same zone and locality as the preceding. Collection of Dr. Eov. r c. ., 25. Ditto; view T ed from above, showing some fragments of the spicular dermal crust. Same zone and locality as the preceding. Collection of Dr. Eowe. ,. 26. '26a. Ditto; a small specimen, viewed in profile, natural size (26); and the concave base, with rod-like spicules radiating from the centre to the margins, enlarged 4 diam. (26a). Zone of Terebratulina gracilis ; East Cliff, Dover. Collection of Dr. Eowe. „ 27, 27a. Forosphxra arrecta, sp. n. Viewed in profile (27), and showing the base (27a), enlarged 3 diam. Zone of Rhynchonella Cuvieri ; Brans- combe Cliff, South Devon coast. Collection of Dr. Eowe. ,, 28, 28a. Ditto ; showing the exterior and the basal aspect, enlarged 3 diam. Zone of Marsupites (JJintaerinus Band); Thanet coast. Collection of Dr. Eowe. 14 Transactions of the Society. wrinkled (pi. I., fig. 10.). The specimens are now free, but the wrinkled character of their bases seems to indicate that they may- have been attached to some foreign body during life. From the surface elevations deeply impressed branching canals radiate down their sides. Typical examples of Porosphwra pilcolus are thimble- or in- verted cup-shaped, with thick walls and deeply concave bases ; the basal hollow is lined with a spicular dermal layer and shows successive growth-rings or bands. The upper surface of this species resembles that of P. globularis (pi. I., figs. 20, 21). In P. patelliformis, the outer form resembles that of a limpet, the basal cavity is wide, the walls are comparatively thin, and it is furnished with a distinct basal dermal layer (pi. I., figs. 22-26«) In yet another form which I have named arrccta, the sponge is like a small, upright tapering pillar with a concave base (pi. I., figs. 27-28«). In some specimens the base may probably have been attached originally to some other body. VI. Skeletal Mesh. The skeleton of Porosphara is of a stony character ; in thin sections under the Microscope it appears to be made up of a finely porous mesh-work of continuous anastomosing fibres, in which, however, little structure can now be distinguished. The nature of the mesh-fibres is better shown on the surface of specimens obtained directly from the Chalk. These, when carefully cleaned from the matrix, exhibit under a strong lens or a Microscope a multitude of minute, projecting spines or rays, which also can be recognised by a rasping sensation when the finger is rubbed over the surface. On close examination, each of these projecting rays can be seen to spring from the central junction of three other short, generally recurved rays, and they are, in fact, the apical rays of four-rayed spicules similar to those in Plectroninia and Petro- stroma. The three sub-equal, short facial rays of these spicules have truncate ends, which are fused or welded to the surfaces of the adjoining spicules, in such a manner as to form the mesh-fibres which delimit the radial canals (pi. II., figs. 6, 0). The nature of the skeleton of Porosphccra in the early stages of growth is admirably shown in a small specimen of P. glolularis, about 1*25 mm. in diameter, which has been preserved in a flint from the Upper Chalk of Kent (pi. II., fig. 1). The specimen was dis- covered by Mr. H. Muller, of Eltham, to whom I am indebted for the opportunity of studying it. The apical rays are very prominent, and the facial rays are already firmly fused to those of adjacent spicules. By further surface growth these prominent apical rays would be partially surrounded by and welded to the facial rays of the succeeding layer of spicules above them, and would thus be The Genus Porosphccra, Steinmann. By George J. Hinde. 15 incorporated with the mesh-fibres, so that they would be hardly, if at all, recognisable in microscopic sections of the interior of the organism. In older specimens of Porosphcera the mesh-spicules are frequently considerably larger and thicker than in the young individual just referred to (pi. II., fig. 9). In sections of specimens of P. globularis and of P. pileolus from South Croydon, the free apical spicular rays near the surface are seen to be furnished with stout lateral prickles, closely resembling those in Plcctroninia Haiti (pi. II., figs. 5, 6). VII. Basal Layer. The hollow inverted cup- or thimble-shaped bases of P. pileolus, and the more open saucer-like bases of P. patclliformis, show con- centric lines or bands, which mark intervals of growth (pi. I., figs. 20a-24a) ; and these are lined by very slender thread-like and occasionally wavy spicules, disposed generally parallel with each other, in the direction of the margin of the cup. These spicules are so fine and closely set that it is difficult to determine whether they are simple rods or rays of three-rayed spicules ; but in some few specimens there is a thin exterior layer of straight, slender spicular rods, extending downwards and outwards like thatch on a» roof (pi. I., fig. 26a). In P. Woodwardi the base is small, concave and rugose, and its spicular characters are obscured. VIII. Spicular Dermal Layer. With a few rare exceptions, the outer surface of Porosphcera, even of well-preserved specimens which have had the chalky matrix carefully removed, only shows the skeletal fibres and the projecting apical rays of the spicules described above. But in the exceptional examples, the usual skeletal mesh is covered in places with a layer or crust of so different a character and appearance that at first sight it might have been taken for an encrusting sponge which had settled and grown on the outside of the Porosphozra. This dermal layer appears as a whitish crust, in some instances thin and smooth, in others of measurable thickness, uneven, and with occasional small projections (pi. I., figs. 7, 8). Examined directly under the Microscope, it is seen to consist, in the majority of cases, of an agglomeration of minute three- and four-rayed spicules, with an admixture of simple rods so intimately and irregularly mingled together that it is difficult to distinguish the individual forms. These spicules seem to have been originally quite free and not connected together organically in any way (pi. II., fig. 7). In one or two specimens the outer surface of the dermal 16 Transactions of the Society. layer consists of very slender rod-like spicules, regularly disposed side by side or arranged concentrically round a small opening (? pore). (PI. II., fig. 10.) Out of a total number of about 3000 specimens of Porosphcera examined, I have only met with a dermal layer in eighteen indi- viduals. In but two of these does it extend over the whole surface ; in the others only small patches of the skeletal mesh are now covered by it. Where thin, the apical spicular rays can be seen to penetrate through it. It occurs in specimens of P. globularis, P. nuciformis, P. pileolus and P. patelliformis, from different localities and horizons, from the zone of Micrastcr cor-testudinarium upwards, with the exception of the zone of M. cor-anguinum. Pro- portionately, a larger number of specimens with the dermal layer partially preserved are found in the zone of Bel. mucronata than in the lower horizons of the English Chalk. In its structure and general characters, the dermal layer of Porosplmra is very similar to that of the Tertiary Plectroninia and the recent Pctrostroma from the Japanese Sea. In both of these EXPLANATION OF PLATE II. Fig. 1. Porosph.xra globularis, Phill., sp. A small specimen, preserved in flint, showing the spicular structure of the exterior. x 50 diam. Upper Cbalk ; near Sidcup, Kent. Collection of Mr. H. Muller. ., 2. Ditto ; portion of the outer surface, showing the arrangement of the skeletal spicules bounding the apertures of the radial canals. X 40 diam. Zone of Belemnitella mucronata ; Ballard Cliff, Dorset coast. Collection of Dr. Rowe. „ 3. Ditto; three-rayed spicules of the dermal layer, x 100 diam. Zone of Aclinocamax quadratus; Scralchell's Bay, Isle of Wight. Collection of G. J. Hinde. „ 4. Porosphxra nuciformis, \. Hag., sp. Portion of the surface, showing the skeletal spicules and the radial canal apertures, x 40 diam. Zone of A. quadratus ; Cliff, east of Brighton. ., 5. rorosphxra pileolus. A four-rayed mesh spicule, the apical ray armed with lateral prickles. From a microscopic section near the margin of the specimen, x 200 diam. Zone of Micrader cor-anguinum ; South Croydon. Collection of G. J. Hinde. ,, (I. P. globularis. A portion of the skeletal mesh, showing its structure of fuur- rayed spicules, the basal rays of which are now fused together, x 100 diam. Zone of M. cor-anguinum ; South Croydon. Collection of G. J. Hinde. „ 7. Ditto; a fragment of the dermal layer, showing three- and four-rayed spicules irregularly intermingled, x 50 diam. Zone of B. mucronata ; Ballard Cliff, Dorset coast. Collection of Dr. Rowe. ., IS. Ditto; a small specimen preserved in chalk, showing blunted apical rays of spicules projecting from the surface, x 40 diam. Upper Cbalk, Graves- end, Kent. Collection of Mr. T. H. Powell. „ 9. Ditto; the skeletal mesh near the margin of a specimen preserved in flint, showing the curved facial and the projecting apical rays of four-rayed spicules, x 40 diam. Upper Chalk; Chatham. Jeimyn Street Museum. „" 10. Ditto; portion of the outer surface of the dermal layer, showing rod-like spicules arranged concentrically round a central pore (?). x 50 diam. Zone of Belemnitella mucronata; Ballard CI iff', Dorset coast. Collection of Dr. Bowe. JOURN.R.MICR. S0C.1904.Pl.il. i % Q a- so ^fflw™- x/Oi #1V 10 . ) xSO ' ^$&ir YfO G M Woodward del.et lith. We st, Newman imp. POROSPH^RA PROM THE ENGLISH CHALK. The Genus Porosphcera, Steinmann. By George J. Hinde. 17 genera the dermal layer is very fragile and easily removable from the connected skeletal mesh of the body of the sponge, and Dr. Doderlein* states that in the specimens of the latter genns, which had evidently been dead some time before they were hooked up from the bottom of the sea, every trace of the dermal layer had disappeared. It seems to me, therefore, highly probable that in the various forms of Poros])hcvra from the Chalk a spicular dermal layer covered the surface originally, and its subsecpuent complete dis- appearance from the very large majority of these specimens may be attributed to the loose intermingling and the absence of organic connection of its constituent spicules, whereby the crust became liable to disintegration and removal soon after the death of the organism. It is only owing to exceptionally favourable conditions of preservation that some small fragments of the dermal layer still remain on a few of these sponges. IX. Canal System. All the forms of Porosphmra possess a series of simple, straight canals which, in P. globidaris and P. nuciformis, radiate in all directions from a central point or area to the surface of the sponge (pi. I., fig. 6), whilst in P. pileolus, P. patclliformis, also in P. Woodivardi, they radiate upwards and outwards from the centre of the concave base. The canals are closely arranged, uniformly small, and of the same dimensions throughout their length : as the sponge increases in size fresh canals are intercalated. The canals are bounded by the spicular mesh-fibres and free intercom- munication can take place in the small spaces between the fibres. In P. nuciformis, in addition to the radial canals of the interior, there are simple, shallow, surface grooves, with intermediate, slightly elevated, rounded ridges, which are directed meridionally towards the summit of the sponge, where, however, there is no special aperture. Generally there is but one pole towards which the grooves converge (pi. 1., figs. 11-17), but in some rare speci- mens there are two or more elevations which serve as centres (pi. I. fig. 18). These grooves are but surface features, and they are fre- quently so faintly marked as to be scarcely noticeable, but it seems probable that they played some part in the circulation of the sponge. In P. Woodwardi there are distinct, strongly marked, branch- ing canals, which extend from one or more slightly raised peaks down the sides of the sponge (pi. I., fig. 19). As in P. nuciformis, there is no special aperture at the slightly projecting points where * Zool. Jahrb, x. (1893) p. 17. Feb. 17th, 1904 c 18 Transactions of the Society. the canals converge. Though now open surface canals, it is likely that they were covered by a dermal layer during the life of the sponge. X. Affinities of the Genus. The structure of Porosphcera, described above, shows clearly that it is a Calcisponge, belonging to the group of the Lithonina, and its nearest ally is Plectroninia, Hinde,* from Tertiary strata, near Geelong, Australia. In common with the other members of this group, it has a very firm resistant skeletal mesh of fibres composed of four-rayed spicules, each with a partially free apical ray and three facial rays, which are intimately fused with the rays of adjoining spicules. It also possessed a dermal layer of loosely interwoven spicules of a readily destructible character. It is dis- tinguished from Plectroninia by the well-marked simple radiate canals of the interior, by the absence of distinct floors or layers of growth consisting of smaller spicules, not definitely fused together, and further, by the apparent absence of minute " tuning-fork " spicules. From Pctrostroma, D6derlein,f Porosphcera is also dis- tinguished by its radial canals, and its skeletal fibres are not fused into radial balks, with smaller connecting spicules, as in the former genus. Whether the fibres of Porosphcera were invested with a common calcareous pellicle like those of Plectroninia is uncertain, for their state of preservation does not allow of determination. XI. Description of Species. Porosphcera globularis, Phill. sp. (pi. I., figs. 1-10; pi. II., figs. 1-3, 6-10). 1829. Millepora globularis, Phill., Geol. Yorks., pt. 1, p. 186, pi. i., fig. 12. 1833. „ „ S. Woodward, Geol. Norfolk, p. 46, pi. iv., figs. 10-12. 1814. Ceriopora pisum, Eeuss, Geognostische Skizzen aus Bohmen, vol. ii, p. 140. 1845. Tragus globularis, Eeuss, Versteinerimgen bolmi. Krei deformation, Abth. ii. p. 78, pi. xx., fig. 5. 1850. Coscinopora globularis, A. d'Orbigny, Prodr. dePak'ont., vol. ii., p. 284. 1854. „ „ Morris, Cat. Brit. Foss., 2nd ed. p. 27. 1860. Orbitolina globularis, Parker and Jones, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 3, vol. vi., p. 34. 1864. Achilleum globosum, F. A. Eoemer, Pateontographica, vol. xiii., p. 56. 1875. Coscinopora globularis, Etheridge, Geol. Yorks , 3rd ed. p. 322, pi. i., fig. 12. 1878. Porospjhxra globularis, Steinmann, pars. Pakeontog., vol. xxv.,p. 120. 1879. Ceriopora nuciformis, Qnenstedt, pars. Petrefactenk. Deutsckf, vol. vi., p. 262 ; Atlas, pi. 153, figs. 1-7, 9. * Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, lvi. (1900) pp. 50-66, pis. iii. and iv. t Zool. Jalirb.,x. (1S9S) pp. 15-32, pis. ii.-vi. The Genus Porosphcera, Steinmann. By George J. Hinde. 19 1879. Porosj)hxra globularis, v. Zittel, Handb. der Pal., vol. i., p. 288. 1888. „ „ H. A. Nicholson, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist , ser. 6, vol. i., p. 11. 1889. „ „ Nicholson, Man. Pal., 3rd ed. vol. i., p. 200. 1889. Amorphosponyia globosa, A. Fritsch, Stud. Gebiete d. bohm. Kreiilef., vol. iv., p. 108, fig. 52. 1900. Porosphxra globularis, Eowe,Proc. Geol. Assoc, vol. xvi., pt. 6, pp. 299, 344, 361 ; vol. xvii., pt. 1 (1901) pp. 67, 71 ; vol. xviii., pt, 3 (1903) pp. 37, 49. 1903. „ „ Steinmann, Einfiihrung in die Palaontologie, p. 95, fig. 125. Sponges simple, generally rounded, like peas or marbles, but sometimes oval, loaf- or cushion-shaped, without any distinctive base ; for the most part free and unattached, but in many cases they grew round foreign bodies which have been incapable of fossilisation, and these sponges now exhibit cylindrical hollow tubes which extend partly or entirely through them (pi. I., fig. 1). Generally increase of growth is uniform over the surface, but in some instances fresh layers are formed so as to cover but portions of the surface at once (pi. I., fig. 2).[ Small specimens are found of about 1 mm. in diameter ; the larger forms range to 34 mm. in diameter. The outer surface is completely covered with the minute apertures of straight, simple canals, which radiate outwards from a central point or small area, with intercalations as the sponge increases in size. The apertures of the canals are rounded or somewhat polygonal, from 0'16 to 0-25 mm. in diameter, and they are separated from each other by the delicate mesh fibres ; the interspaces being sometimes less than, and sometimes exceed- ing, the width of the canal apertures. Barely, shallow open grooves are faintly shown on parts of the surface of some of the larger loaf-shaped forms (pi. I., figs. 9, 10). The four-rayed spicules which form the skeletal fibres vary somewhat in size in different specimens. The pointed apical ray is directed outwards ; those near the exterior project as minute spines beyond the general surface of the sponge ; sometimes this ray is smooth, sometimes armed with horizontal prickles. The apical ray ranges from • 14 to • 35 mm. in length, and from ' 04 to • 1 mm. in thickness at the base. The three facial rays of the spicules are shorter than the apical ray ; they curve downwards, tripodal fashion, and are truncate at the ends where fused to proximate spicules. They are from 0*1 to 0'2 mm. in length, and from - 04 to "075 mm. in thickness. The mesh fibres formed by the fusing together of the individual spicules are about O'll mm. in thickness. The dermal layer, which is very rarely preserved, is a whitish crust, uneven, and with small protuberances in places ; it consists of three- and four-rayed spicules and apparently simple rod-like c 2 20 Transactions of the Society. forms confusedly intermingled (pi. II., figs. 3, 7). The rays of the former are from 0*14 to 0*22 mm. in length, and about 0-03 mm. in thickness. The exterior surface of the dermal layer appears to be composed of very delicate linear spicules, regularly arranged ; in one instance they are disposed concentrically round a small pore-like aperture (pi. II., fig. 10). Distribution. — P. globularis is by far the most numerous species of the genus ; out of a total of 2902 specimens from the English Chalk which I have examined, 2357, or slightly over 81 p.c, belong to it. Its earliest appearance is at the base of the Middle or Turonian Chalk in the zone of Rliynclionclla Cuvieri at Dover and the South Devon coast. It is distributed generally in all the higher zones of the Chalk, and becomes more numerous and larger in size till reaching its maximum in the zones of Micraster cor- anguinum and Marsupitcs. The loaf- and cushion-shaped forms occur chiefly in the Marsiqritcs zone at Margate and the Thanet coast, and in the Bel. mueronata zone at Ballard Cliff and Studland Bay, on the Dorset coast. It is common in the Chalk of Flam- borough Head and Sewerby, on the Yorkshire coast, where the specimens are small generally. It is also abundant at and near Newhaven and Brighton, and in the Isle of Wight. Inland, it is found plentiful at and near Croydon. Surrey, and sparsely in Hampshire and Wiltshire. According to Steinmann, P. globularis is generally present in the Chalk of Middle and Northern Europe. Eeuss and Fritsch record it from the Teplitzer beds (Lower Senonian ?) at Ivutschlin and near Bilin, in Bohemia, and von Hagenow from the island of Biigen. Lately Bavn * has recognised it in the Bryozokalk (Older Danian) of Jutland. Porosphccra nuciformis, von Hagenow, sp. (pi. I., figs. 11-18; pi. II., fig. 4). 1822. Zoophyte of a pyriform shape, the nature of which is unknown, Mantell, Geology of Sussex, p. 162, pi. xvi., figs. 17, 18. 1839. Ceriopora nuciformis, von Hagenow, Neues Jalirb. fur Mia., p. 286, pi. v., fig. 9. 1872-5. „ „ Geinitz, Palreontographica, vol. xxii., p. 4. 1879. „ „ Quenstedt, pars. Petrefact. Deutschl., p. 62. 1900. Porosphasra Woodwardi, Eowe (non Carter), Proc. Geol. Assoc, vol. xvi., pt. 6, pp. 304, 344, 361 ; vol. xvii., pt. 1 (1901) pp. 67, 72. Sponges free, simple, typically pear-shaped, but occasionally melon- or loaf-shaped, with longitudinal low swellings or ridges, and intermediate shallow grooves which converge to the obtuse pole of the sponge. The number of the ridges variable ; in some specimens they are set closer and more strongly marked than in * Kgl. Datiske Vidensk. Selsk. Skrifter, 6 Eakke, xi. 6 (1903) p. 423. The Genus Porosphccra, Steinmaun. By George J. Hinde. 21 others, sometimes also there are two or more slight elevations to which the grooves converge (pi. I., fig. 18). There are no special apertures at the point of convergence beyond the openings of the minute radial canals, which are present all over the surface, alike on the ridges and the grooves. As in P. globulavis, a number of these sponges are penetrated by cylindrical tubes which extend either longitudinally or trans- versely through them; of those which I have examined about 17 p.c. are traversed by tubes. The sponges range from 4 to 20 mm. in diameter. The spicular structure of the skeletal fibres appears similar to that of P. globulavis, and the same may be said of the dermal layer, fragments of which, however, were only observed on the surface of two specimens. From P. globidaris, this species is distinguished by its form and the ridges and grooves of its surface ; and from P. Woodwardi, Carter, by the absence of a concave base of attachment and by the great difference between its shallow simple grooves and the branching canals of P. Woodwardi. Specimens of P. nuciformis have been generally referred to Carter's species, but this latter is rare, and it seems to me a quite distinct form, and, moreover, it is restricted to a lower zone than that in which P. nuciformis occurs. Von Hagenow considered that the pear-shaped specimens of nuciformis which he figured were only more perfect examples of the spherical forms, that is of P. globularis, Phillips, of which he makes no mention, and he evidently intended to include both in the species nuciformis. If this w r ere the case, Phillips' name would have the priority, but it seems to me that the pear-shaped, grooved forms differ specifically from P. globularis, and I propose to retain for them Hagenow' s name nuciformis. Distribution. — P. nuciformis makes its first appearance in the zone of Micraster cor-anguinum at Croydon, coast of Thanet and Dorset, and at Flamborough ; it is relatively more numerous in the zone of Marsupites at Margate and the Thanet coast, and reaches its maximum in numbers, and size in the zone of Act. quadratus at and near Newhaven, near Brighton, and the Isle of Wight ; it is also numerous in the zone of Bel. mucronata at Ballard Cliff and Studland Bay, Dorset, and likewise occurs at Trimingham, Norfolk coast. Abroad it is found in the Chalk of Riigen. o v PorospJiaTa Woodwardi, Carter sp. (pi. I., fig. 19). 1877. (?) Bradya tergestina, Carter (non Staclie), Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 4, vol. xix., p. 64. 1878. Millepora Woodwardi, Carter, op. cit., ser. 5, vol. i, p. 306, pi. xvii., figs. 6 8 . 22 Transactions of the /Society. 1878. Porosphsera globularis, Steinmann, pars. Pal?eontograpliica, toI. xxv., p. 120, pi. xiii., figs. 8-10. 1900. 71071 Po7-o^hx7-a Woodwardi, Kowe, Proc. Geol. Assoc, vol. xvi., pt. 6, pp. 304, 344, 361 ; vol. xvii., pt. 1 (1901) pp. 67, 72. Small oval or rounded sponges, from 12 to 18 mm. in diameter, with deeply impressed branching canals which extend from the basal portion to the summit, and also to one or more lateral centres. There is no special aperture either at the summit or at the sides where these canals meet. The base of the sponge is concave, elongate and rugose, and it appears to have been fixed ; no spicular structure can be recognised in it. The surface of the sponge is covered with the apertures of radial canals, which are about - 16 mm. wide and from one to two diameters apart. The skeletal fibres are about 0*05 mm. in thickness ; the spicules in them are now rarely visible, but here and there in thin sections the pointed apical rays can be distin- guished ; these are about O'll mm. in length by 0*04 mm. in width at the base. This species, which has been fully described by the late Mr. Carter, is distinguished from any of the other Chalk species of Porosphcera by the strongly-marked branching canals of the surface, which are very distinct from the simple, shallow grooves in P. nuciformis. From this latter it differs also in the possession of a concave base of attachment. Professor Steinmann considered that the branching canals in P. Woodwardi, Carter, were of no real signification, and he included the species in P. globularis, in which, however, these features are not present. P. Woodwardi is rare, and in this country has only been met with in the Grey Chalk of the zone of Holastcr siibglobosus at Dover, and at Durdle Cove, Dorset. The specimens from the higher zones of the Chalk, which have been referred by Dr. Eowe and others to this species, really belong to P. nuciformis. Stein- mann also states that this species occurs in the Upper Chalk (Senonian) of Vordorf and Ahlten, North Germany, but it is pro- bable that the forms mentioned should be included in P. nuciformis. Porosphcera pileolus (pi. I., figs. 20-21a; pi. II., fig. 5). 1829. Lii7i7ilites urceolata, Phill. (non Lamarck), Geol. Yorks., pt. 1, p. 186, pi. i., fig. 11. 1854. Cosct7iopora (?) pileolus, Morris, Cat. Brit. Foss., 2nd ed. p. 28. 1860. Orbitolina concara, Parker and Jones (non Lain, sp.) Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 3, vol. vi., pp. 35, 39. 1875. Coscinopora pileolus, Etheridge (Phill.) Geol. Yorks. 3rd ed. p. 322, pi. i., fig. 11. 1900. Po7-osphxi-a pileolus, Eowe, pars. Proc. Geol. Assoc, vol.xvi., pt. 6, pp. 304, 344, 361 ; vol. xvii., pt. 1 (1901) pp. 67, 72. The Genus Porosphcera, Steinmann. By George J. Hindc. 23 Sponges simple, free, thimble- or inverted cup-shaped, some- times hemispherical, with a deeply concave, cup-shaped base. Walls thick. The outer surface is even, without grooves or ridges, and covered with the apertures of the minute radial canals. The concave base shows concentric rings or bands of growth, and a small umbo or boss at the bottom. The specimens range from 2 to 18 mm. in diameter. The skeletal fibres resemble those of P. globularis. The canals radiate upwards from the basal layer. The concave base has a layer of minute spicular rays, regularly arranged like thatch on a roof, and outside of this there appear to have been elongate, slender, rod-like spicules. In one specimen there is a small fragment remaining of a spicular dermal crust of a similar character to that in P. globularis. This species is characterised by its form, thick wall, and deeply concave base. The various specific names by which this species has been known, are taken from Lamarck's Animaux sans Vcrtebrcs, torn. ii. (1816) pp. 190-197. They were applied originally to Foraminifera or Polyzoa, and therefore have no proper connection with this sponge. It seems to me desirable, however, that quite inde- pendently of Lamarck's use of the term " pileolus" it may be suitably retained for this species of Porosphcera. Distribution. — P. pileolus is first known from the Holaster planus zone at Dover, and from this upwards it occurs in the higher beds of the Chalk to the top of the Actinocamax quadratics zone at Croydon, Margate, Thanet coast, near Newhaven, near Brighton, Isle of Wight, Dorset coast, as well as at Flamborough and Sewerby, Yorkshire. Porosphcera patelliformis, sp. n. (pi. I., figs. 22-2 6ft). 1822. Lunulites (?) Mantell, Geology of Sussex, p. 180, pi. xvi., figs. 22-24. 1835. Orbitolites lenticulata, Mantell (nou Lam.), Trans. Geol. Soc, ser. 2, vol. iii,. p. 204. Sponges limpet-shaped, with peaked or rounded summits, base rounded or oval in outline, usually deeply concave, but occasionally flattened, and in some young specimens even slightly convex. Wall relatively thin. The specimens range from 2 to 23 mm. in diameter. The skeletal fibres are of a somewhat coarse character, and the radial canals are short ; their apertures range to • 3 mm. in width. The concave base shows concentric bands of growth, and its spicular structure is similar to that of P. 'pileolus. Usually there is no boss at the bottom of the base. A spicular dermal crust covers in part the surface of one specimen (pi. I., fig. 25). This species is distinguished from P. pileolus by its limpet-like 24 Transactions of the Society. form, thin walls, slight development of the radial canals, and some- what coarser skeletal fibres. Distribution. — It occurs, rarely, in the zones of Tcreuratulina gracilis and Holastcr planus at Dover, and in each succeeding higher zone of the Chalk. It is most abundant in the M. cor- testudinarium zone near Newhaven, in the Uintacrinus band of the Thanet coast, and at Flamborougli. Poi'osjrfio'ra arrccta, sp. n. (pi. I., figs. 27-28a). Sponges small, simple, conical pillar-shaped, the base concave with thin margins ; in some specimens it retains traces of spicules, whilst in others it is rugose, as if it had been attached to an un- even surface originally. The sponges are about 8 mm. in height, and the diameter of the base from 3 to 7 mm. The walls are thin and the canals are scarcely noticeable; whilst the skeletal fibres are of the usual character. This form is rare ; it first appears in the zone of B. Cuvieri at Branscombe and Barry Cliff on the South Devon coast ; it occurs also in the zone of M. cor-anguinum at Flamborougli, in the Marsupitcs zone at Margate, and in the A. quadratics zone near Newhaven. Porosphccra. Irregular forms. There are a few specimens in the collections examined which differ from any of the species described above, but do not present any features sufficiently well marked to justify placing them as distinct forms. Some are merely thin crusts either overlapping one another, or attached to other bodies, others are spindle-shaped and free, whilst yet others appear to be distorted or monstrous growths of P. globularis and P. patelliformis. XII. Summary. The descriptions of the structure of Porosphccra given in this paper are based chiefly on extensive collections from the various zones of the English Chalk made by Dr. A. W. Bowe and by the author. The fossils have long been well known, but owing to their state of preservation, it has been difficult to ascertain their minute structure, and hence very divergent opinions have been held respecting their nature and systematic position ; latterly, however, the view that they were Hydrozoa, structurally allied to Millcpora and Parkeria, has been generally accepted. It is now definitely shown that the calcareous anastomosing fibres of their The Genus Porosphop/ra, Steinmann. By George J. Hindc. 25 skeleton consist of four-rayed spicules, in which one ray is taper- ing and the other three blunted and organically fused to adjoining spicules. They also possessed originally a crust or dermal layer of smaller spicules than those of the skeletal mesh, which are not fused together, and also in some forms a distinct spicular base is present. In the form of the skeletal spicules and in their arrangement Porosphcera closely resembles the Calcisponge genus Plectroninia, Hinde, from the Eocene (?) Tertiary of Australia, and the recent Petrostroma, Doderlein, from the Japanese sea, and with these genera it finds a place in the Lithonina group of Calcisponges. Descriptions are given of the following species : P. globularis, Phill., P. nuciformis, von Hag., P. Woodicardi, Carter, P. pileolus, P. patelliformis, sp. n., and P. arrecta, sp. n. 26 Transactions of the Society. II. — Microscopic Resolution : Note on a Point in Lord Hay high's Paper of 1896.* By Peofessoe J. D. Everett, F.E.S. (Head November 18th, 1003.) In Lord Bayleigh's paper of 1896, which contains the fullest investigation ever published of the theory of microscopic resolu- tion, there is one paragraph of special difficulty, — that in which the transition is made from direct to oblique illumination of a grating under the Microscope, the aperture being supposed rectangular. With direct illumination, the phase of vibration is the same all over the grating, and it is shown that the amplitude of vibra- tion at any point in the plane of the image is expressed by the series sin u sin (u -f v) . sin (u — v) , sin (u + 2 v) , /0QN - T — r— " T~ - "T - — ; — ~ — T • • • \£&) u ii + v u — v u + 2 v v denoting the increment of u from line to line of the grating, or of its geometrical image. The change to oblique illumination introduces a uniform phase- difference from line to line ; and it is assumed (for reasons not stated) that this has the effect of changing the expression for the amplitude to sin u sin (u + v) _ imv , sin (w — v) + : C ■+■ : U U + V U — V pimxi + sin (u + 2 v) e _ 2imv + , 32 v u + 2 v i denoting s/ — 1, and m a multiplier to be determined. It is not easy to see how this series can be equal to a quantity which is entirely real ; and apart from this difficulty the process of deducing a practical result is rather laborious. I wish to indicate a simpler process leading to the same result. The grating-interval being denoted by e, and the obliquity of illumination by 7, the difference of optical path from line to line * See this Journal, August, 1903, pp. 447-73. Microscopic Resolution. By Professor J. D. Everett, F.R.S. 27 is e sin 7, giving a phase-difference -^— e sin 7. This is to be added (with its proper sign) to the phase-difference v in (28), 2 IT which is found, on examination, to have the value -^— sin a (a denoting the numerical aperture). It is, therefore, simply 2 7T necessary to assign to v in (28) the value -— — (sin a + sin 7), and (28) will be the general expression for the amplitude for any obliquity of illumination (7 being zero when the illumination is direct). This conclusion is in accordance with (45), which is the final result deduced from (32). The value above assigned to v for direct illumination is obtained in the following way. Let a denote the distance from line to line in the geometric image of the grating. The magnifi- cation a I e is, by the sine-law, equal to sin a j sin 6, the small angle 9 being equal (in the notation of the paper) to ^ a divided by /. As u stands for the abscissa of a line in the geometric image multiplied by — -, its increment v is *• / it a it a 2 f . 2 7r — a = — - e — -i- sm a = e sin a. \f \f a \ We assume (as usual) that the plane waves of illumination intersect the plane of the grating in lines parallel to the grating lines. The resolution will be most complete when sin a + sin 7 is greatest, that is, when the difference of optical path from line to line is greatest. To this end, the grating (a small microscopic object) should be on one side of the axis of the Microscope, and the light should come from the other side ; sin a and sin 7 will then have the same sign. 28 Transactions of the Society. III. — The Mouth-parts of the Nemocera and their Relation to the other Families in Diptera. By W. Wesche, F.E.M.S. (JXead November 18th, 1903.) Plates III.-VIII. The work which I have done on the tropin of Diptera has been mostly concerned with the Muscidse. I have endeavoured to prove : (1) that the palpi, always regarded as maxillary, are in fact labial ; (2) that the whole proboscis homologises with the typical insect mouth ; (3) that the palpi in the Empidse and Syrphidse are homologous, but not homologous with those of the Muscidse, the two former being maxillary, and the latter labial ; (4) I have also formu- lated a rule which enables the observer to discriminate between the palpi of the two parts. " The maxillary palpi when present in Diptera are always in contact with the stipites and cardines of the maxilla?." The application of this rule, and the comparison of a large number of parts, have enabled me to divide nearly all the families of the order into eight groups. Several difficulties have been pointed out to me by Mr. A. E. Hammond, F.L.S. (who is well acquainted with the anatomy of the Nemocera), in the Bibionidse, the Tipulidse, and the Chirono- midse ; these I propose to deal with in my remarks on each group. In my classification of the families into the different groups, a certain amount of generalisation must be allowed for ; the re- markable diversity of the tropin in the order making this necessary. As it is, genera of the same family, and even the sexes of a species have been placed in different divisions, and I have little doubt but that exceptions, other than those I have noted, will be found, especially among the less known families and rarer species. The first group consists of those flies which possess the nearly complete mouth-parts, and are without exception either blood- sucking or raptorial ; mandibles are present, maxilla? lacking the gala?, labium without the palpi, labrum and hypopharynx. As to the epipharynx, it is generally indistinguishable in Diptera, and therefore best omitted ; but I suspect a curious wrinkled mem- brane, lying under the hypopharynx in Simuliwm rcptans L., of being this part. The Mouth-parfc of the Ncmocera, etc. By W. Wesche. 21) Group 1. — All parts distinguishable, except the labial palpi, which are aborted. Simulidae. (Type S. reptans L.) Culicidae, the females only. Tabanidae, „ „ „ Asilidae. Group 2. — The mandibles are fused into the labium, and the labial palpi are aborted. (a) Raptorial, or bloodsucking. Empidae, with exceptions. Leptidae. (Type L. scolopacca L.) The genus Ceratopogon of the Chironomida3. (I) Suctorial. Mycetophilidae. Psychodidse. Culicidae, the males only and the genus Corethra. Ehyphidse. (Type R. fencstralis Scop.) Bombylidae. Syrphidoe. Group 3. — The mandibles are fused into the labium, the laciniae and galas of the maxillae and the labial palpi are aborted. Cecidomyidae. Chironomidae, except the genus Ceratopogon. (Type Ch. pilumosus L.) Tipulidae. Stratiomidae. Conopodae. Group 4. — The mandibles are fused into the labium ; all parts of the maxillae except the stipites and cardines are aborted ; the palpi present are labial, the trachea? of the paraglossae (labella) are only moderately developed. Bibionidae. (Type B. hortulanus L.) Dolichopidae. Phoridae. Group 5. — The mandibles and other parts as in Group 4, but having the tracheae well developed. (a) With remnants of maxillary palpi. «• Some Tachinidae. Some Muscida?. (Type M. domestica L.) Some Anthomyidae. 30 Transactions of the Society. (b) With no remains of maxillary palpi. Lonchopteridre. Pipunculidce. Some Tachinidce ) Particularly highly modified Some Muscidse ) genera, as Siphona or Stomoxys. Some Anthomyidoe. (Type C. erythrocephala Mg.) Cordyluridse. OrtalidaB. Trypetidse. Loncheidse. Chloropodee. Hippoboscidse. Group 6. — The mandibles are fused into the labium ; the car- dines, stipites and lacinire of the maxillae are present, the latter leaf-shaped and pubescent ; the paraglossoe are without teeth ; the palpi are labial. Phycodroniidre. (Type C. frigida Mg.) Helomyzidse. Sciomyzidre. Sapromyzidae. Group 7. — The mandibles are fused into the labium ; the maxilhe are embedded, the palpi being the only part exposed, labial palpi also present ; the trachea of the paraglossee are more or less well developed. Opomyzidoe. Sepsidre. Ephydridae. Drosophilidse. Borboridre. (Type B. eauinus Pin.) Group 8. — All parts atrophied. (Estridse. (Type G. equi F.) I propose making remarks on the trophi of these various families, each in its group, which will facilitate reference for those who wish to consult the paper on some particular family ; but before doing so it will be of service to explain a diagram of a hypothetical mouth. This has mandibles, complete inaxillce, which only differ from those found in Hydrcllia griscola by the presence of four joints in the palpi; a labium, also with four- jointed palpi, and which has incorporated into its paraglossa? the transverse levers which I homologise with the ligulai • a well- marked labrum covering the hypopharynx, which is ciliated, with levers at the base which represent the submentum. This part is also known as the " fulcrum." The mentum is not prominent as The Mouth-parts of the Nemoeera, etc. By W. Wesche. 31 it is on the ventral side of the labium, but it is an important part of the trophi. All these parts are found in the various families of Diptera (pi. III. fig. 1). I do not include the Pulicidre in this classification, as good authorities place them in an order by themselves, Siphonaptera . But there are so many points of general affinity that I give a figure of the mouth-parts, which are however on a first view very far removed from the type in Diptera. The absence of any labium or paraglossa? at once differentiates them. These insects are pro- vided with two sets of palpi, both four-jointed, the maxillary on the maxilla and the labial, higher up on the head, and having some analogy to the situation of the labial palpi in the Muscidse. The labrum is absent or very minute, but the hypopharynx is well marked ; the maxilke have undergone a curious transformation, and the mandibles are scales on either side of the head (pi. I. % 2). Group 1. — The Simulidse have four-jointed maxillary palpi, and differ from the females of the genus Culex which have apparently only two joints, though the males have four. The hypopharynx in the Simulidte is ciliated at the extremity, and under it is a curious wrinkled membrane which may possibly be the epipharynx ; but this part is so minute that it is impossible to be certain, and I only note it as a possibility. The mandibles are provided with very beautiful serrated edges, and the maxillfe are even more complicated, as they are provided with a double row of sharp teeth. These insects are keen blood-suckers (pi. IV. fig. 7). In the Culicida? are curious differences : — (1) The genus Corethra though possessing the wing of a biting gnat, has a much less modified mouth-part; it is without mandibles, and the maxilla? are broad, minutely pubescent and unfitted for piercing purposes. (2) The mouth-parts of the sexes are different in the other genera (pi. II. fig. 5). Since the mosquito has been found to be the host of the malaria parasite, this family has been much studied, and a number of new species has resulted in several fresh genera. Mr. F. V. Theobald has kindly placed many specimens at my disposal, and I have examined the following species with a view of finding specific or generic characters in the mouth-parts. Culex pipiens L. C.fatigans Wied. C. annulatus Schrk. C. concolor Des. Stegomyia fasciata F. Mizorhynchus barhirostris "Walk. Thcobaldia spathijKiIpus Eond. 32 Transactions of the Society. Grabhamia dorsalis Mg. Myzomia rossii Theo. Mansonia uniformis Theo. M. annulipes Mg. Tccniorhynchus conopus Frau. Nyssorhynchus jamesii Theo. Sabcthes remipes Wied. Desvoidia vcntralis Walk. Mucidus altcrnans Westw. Dinocerites cancer Theo. Anopheles cinercus Theo. A. maculipennis Mg. JEdomyia squamipennis Ami). Acartomyia longirostris Theo. Verrallia butleri Theo. Melanconion a trains Theo. TJranotaznia pygmcca Theo. Eretmapodites sp., undetermined. EXPLANATION OF TLATE III. 1. Diagram of a hypothetical complete mouth in Diptera. This is seen from the dorsal side ; the maxilla? have been separated, and the mandibles removedf rom their positions on the dorsal sides of the maxillae. The cardines and the sub- mentum are supposed to have been dissected out of the enclosing membrane. 2. Mouth-parts of Pulex irritant L. Viewed laterally. 3. Diagram of a hypothetical labium of a common ancestor of the Tabanidse and the Muscidie. The labial palpi here are in the position they occupy in Dilophus, and the palpigers are representative of those found in Chrysops excutiens L. ; they are to be found in most of the Muscida? in a more posterior position, reverting to the position of the part in Blatta. Seen as in fig. 1. 4. Mouth parts of Gastrophilus equi F. In this family the trophi are quite rudimen- tary ; in the figure the parts have been cut from the head of a female, and are seen from the ventral side. The upper part is the more anterior portion. 5. Diagram of the mouth-parts of the female Culex pipiens L. The parts are seen from the dorsal side. On the labium is marked a depression where the " false joint" is occasionally found. This rarely occurs in the females. 6. Diagram of the usual type of mouth armature in the Empida; ; the trophi in the Syrphidse only differ by having a much greater development of the tracheae on the paraglossae ; the characters of the mouth parts iu the Empida? are variable, constant in the Syrphidaj. The diagram is seen from the dorsal side. 7. The " false joint " in the labium of Dinocerites cancer Theo. Ventral view. Note. — The following letters are used throughout the plates :- m Mandible. I Laciuia. g Galea. mp Maxillary palpus. pf Palpifer. s Stipes. c Cardo. Maxilla. pr 1 9 lp PG mn 8 m Ir Paraglossa. Ligula. Labial palpus. Palpiger. Mentum. Submentum. Labrum. Labium. h Hypopharynx. cl Clypeus, JOURN. R.MICR. S0C.1904. PI. W. Wesche, del London Etching Co., ens MOUTH-PARTS OF DIPTERA. JOURN. R.MICR.SOC. 1904. Pi. IV. VV. Wesche, del. London Etching Co., eng MOUTH-PARTS OF DIPTHRA. The Mouth-parts of the Nemocera, etc. By W. Wesche. 33 I find some characters exist, but they are of so minute a nature, and depend so much for their visibility on the way in which they have been mounted, that they are of little or no value in differentiating species. Yet there is one character that sharply separates Anopheles from the other genera: the mandibles are serrated at the tip. This part in the other species seems in an atrophying state, and is often exceedingly difficult to make out. The rare presence of the mandibles in the males, I shall discuss in Group 2, to which section they belong. Tor an excellent description and plate of the mouth-parts of Anopheles maculipennis, I refer the reader to Dr. G. H. F. Nuttall's and Mr. A. E. Shipley's paper on the " Structure and Biology of Anopheles." * In the Culicidse, omitting Corethra, the parts are specialised for blood-sucking, and especially the blood of man. An examina- tion of the tropin of another pest, Cimex lectidaria, shows an interesting correspondence in the fine serration and delicate struc- ture of the maxilla?, enabling the insects to punrture the skin without inflicting pain, or attracting the attention of the victim. In the female C. pipiens, the maxillary palpi are apparently two-jointed, but I can trace the remains of two more on the lower joint, making them conform to the Nemocera type of four joints. In the Brachycera, are the Tabanidre ; they have been so much studied that little need be said about their very beautiful tropin. I have figured Chrysops ccvcutiens L. (pi. IV. fig. 2), as there are on the dorsal side of the labium two short rows of hairs, * Journal of Hygiene, i. No. 4, 1901, p. 461, pi. ix. EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV. 1. Trophi of Pangoniq lonyirostris $. Seen from the dorsal side. 2. Maxilla and palpus of Chrysops excutiens L. 3. Mandible of C- excutiens. 4. Labium of C. excutiens. Dorsal view, showing the palpigers. 5. Palpigera of C excutiens, enlarged. 0. Labrum and liypopharynx of C. excutiens. 7. Maxilla and palpus of Simulium reptans L. 8. Mandible of S. reptans. 9. Labium, with two minute teeth, of S. reptans. 10. Hypopharynx of 8. reptans. 11. Labium of S reptans. In the centre is seen the wrinkled membraue, which is possibly the epipharynx, Dors-U view. 12. Maxilla and palpus of Asitus crabroniformis L. I'd. Mandible of A. crabroniformis. 14. Labium of A. crabroniformis. Lateral view. 15. Labrum of A. crabroniformis. Dorsal view. 16. Ciliated hypophannx of A. crabroniformis. 17. Trophi of Sciara thomx L. Dorsal view. 18. „ cf Hybos femoratus Mull. Lateral view. Only one of the maxillae sb< ws. 19. „ of Leptis scolopacca L. Dorsal view. Feb. 17th, 1904 D 34 Transactions of the Society. forming a triangle ; these remind me of Savigny's often quoted vestiges of labial palpi on Tabanus italicus, though they are differently placed. I regard them as the palpigers, as their situa- tion corresponds with the position of the labial palpi in Dilophus (pi. IV. fig. 5 ; pi. VI. fig. 6). They then explain the constant appearance in the Muscidae, calyptrate and acalyptrate, of rows of hairs at the base of the labial palpi, though the position is much more posterior. I also find on the labium of T. siideticus Zlr., a cluster of fine hairs in the same place as the palpigers are on in Chrysops (pi. VII. figs. 6, 8; pi. VIII. figs. 6, 11 ; pi. III. fig. 3). In Pangonia is found an extraordinary development in the leugth of the labium without the geniculation that usually accom- panies this character. This enables these insects to pierce through clothing to the skin. The figure gives the mouth-parts of the male, and it will be noted that like the normal male Culex, it is without mandibles. The female has a full armature, and certainly belongs to Group 1 (pi. IV. fig. 1). The Asilidae, which prey on other insects, have the labium hardened and horny, the hypopharynx ciliated, (showing, as will be seen later, its relationship to the Nemocera,) and the maxillae very broad and strong; the maxillary palpi have but one joint (pi. IV. fig. 12). Group 2. — The large family of the Empidae are raptorial, con- sequently the maxilhe are well developed ; they carry a single- jointed palpus, which is often annulated at the base. In this family the paraglossae have but few tracheae, but both the labrum and hypopharynx are almost invariably large and strong (pi. III. fig. 6). In Hybos femoratus Mull. I find a remarkable difference in the palpi, which are labial, and placed as in the Muscidae. The maxillae seem atrophying, and are slightly ciliated at the tip ; the hypopharynx is very strong and channelled with a large tube leading down to the pharynx ; this seems the offensive weapon, as in Scotophaga. In Ocydromia glabricula Fin. the palpi are also labial, and the whole labium somewhat of the Musca type (pi. IV. fig. 18). In Lcptis scolopacea L. the maxillae are broad and strong, but the labrum, and particularly the fine, acute hypopharynx, seem better adapted for skin-piercing purposes ; the labium is large, and though the tracheae are relatively small, they are fairly numerous. This insect has been reported to attack man, but nothing exact has been recorded. In June 1903 Mr. F. V. Theobald gave me a female, which had bitten him at Wye, in Kent, and from that insect the figure in the plate is drawn (pi. IV. fig. 19). In the suctorial group, the My cetophilidae have minute maxillae at the base of the three-jointed palpi; the hypopharynx is ciliated The Mouth-parts of the Nemocera, etc By W. Wesche. 35 at the extremity, and the paraglossa? of the labium resemble those found in the Chironomyda? (pi. IV. fig 17). The paraglossa?, in some species of Psychoda, are hardened, and furnished with three minute teeth on the extremities ; these are not to be confounded with the teeth in the Muscida?, having no homology, being modified hairs. P. phalccnoidcs L. and P. sex- punctata Curt, are of this type. In Ulomyia and others the para- glossa? are as in Chironomus, Bibio, Sciara, and may be considered as characteristic of the jSTemocera. The maxilla? are brush-like in appearance, carry four-jointed palpi, which are joined on to the stipites as in Culex. The hypopharynx is ciliated all down the sides (pi. V. fig. 1). In this family, when the mouth is used for blood-sucking, the offensive weapon seems to be the labium, and the other ciliated organs seem adapted to carrying up the fluids by capillary attrac- tion. In Britain these insects are not known to bite, and indeed it is very doubtful if they feed at all, as in a number of specimens examined, no food has been found in the abdomen, and it seems difficult to recognise any alimentary canal. The males in Culex are peculiar, as their mouth-parts differ from those of the females ; the mandibles are mostly aborted, and the maxilla? appear to be in an atrophying condition. Occasionally a male is found with developed mouth-parts, but these are decidedly less perfect than the weapons of the female ; I have lately examined a number of males of the species enumerated on a previous page, besides many C. pipiens. I only found one Anopheles maculipennis with complete mouth-parts, and of these the mandibles and maxilhe are in an atrophied state. I have also a record of a male C. pipiens in September 1902 with complete tropin (pi. V. figs. 2-5). In the males of all the species, is a surprising reversion ; the hypo- pharynx, unlike that of the female, is ciliated at the tip ; the palpi also are four-jointed, and hinge on to the maxillary stipites and cardines. In Dinoccritcs cancer the larva? are parasitic on the crabs in the Barbadoes ; the palpi in the males are very short, but the remains of the four joints can still be made out. In some species the males are thought to sting; in Siegomyia fasciata, the host of the yellow-fever germ, he is reported to act in this manner. I have dissected the tropin of several males, and I found very short atrophying maxilla?, no mandibles, a ciliated hypopharynx, and the labrurn and labium well developed. In August, 1903, I had a number of males of C. pipiens, C. annulatus, and A. maculipennis, and, with the exception mentioned, the trophi were in the same state as in Stegomyia. Not one of these males had his abdomen distended with food, though many had been in my sleeping chamber all night ; and I have little hesitation in saying that normally the males do not suck blood, and I even doubt that they feed at all. Occasionally an aberrant male appears with fully developed mont'.i- D 2 36 Transactions of the Society. parts, and he probably bites, and his individual misconduct is laid to his brethren in general. Besides the ciliated hypopharynx, another reversion appears occasionally in the males, rarely in the females. On the labium is sometimes found a false joint, or a swelling which has the appear- ance of a false joint. This is relatively on tbe same place as the labial palpi are found in Dilophus, or the palpigers in Chrysops. It is difficult of explanation, but it seems probable that it bears some relation to the aborted labial palpi (pi. III. fig. 7). I have preparations of the heads of C. pipiens, male and female, G. con- color VV. Wesche, del London Etching Co., f n. MOUTH-PARTS OF DIPTERA. The Mouth-par U of the Nemocera, etc. By W. Wesche. 37 Brachycera, the Bombylidre and the Syrphida?. In the latter family is less variation in the mouth-parts than in any other large family in Diptera ; Rhingia campestris Mg. has, however, a very long labium, geniculated in a curious manner. Group 3. — The minute Cecidornyidre appear to be without trachete on the labium, the hypopharynx is ciliated, the labrum well marked, and the palpi are four-jointed (pi. V. fig. 8). The large family of the Chironomidre has fairly constant cha- racters, though Ceratopogon appears to be specialised. The tracheal of the paraglossaj are but slightly developed, the palpi are attached to the stipites, and the cardines are long, though all the other parts of the maxillse are wanting ; the hypopharynx is ciliated for some distance down its sides ; the labrum is less modified than in most families, being little more than a fold of skin. The palpi are four- jointed, though they appear to have only three joints — a careful examination shows the lowest joint to be very short, and under- neath is the palpifer, which adheres to the stipes (pi. V. fig. 10). These insects are said not to take food in the imaginal stage. Owing to the imperfection of some of my preparations, I was inclined to consider the palpi in this family as labial, regarding them as homologous with those found in the Bibionida). Mr. A. H. Hammond, F.L.S., pointed out to me that in his, and Prof. L. C. Miall's paper,* they had traced the palpi of C. dorsalis Mg., * ' The Development of the Head of the Imago of C'hironomus,' Trans. Linn. Soc. London, Zool., ser. 2, v., 271-2. EXPLANATION OF PLATE VI. 1. Trophi of Stratiomys chamasleon L. Dorsal view. 2. Paraglossae of Bibio hortulanus L. Dorsal view, but part of the mernbrano has boeu removed to show the fused mandibles on the ventral side. 3. Labrum of B. hortulanus. 4. Hypopharynx of B. hortulanus. 5. Labial palpus of B. hortulanus. 0. Trophi of Dilophus febrilis L. Dorsal view, showing the position of the labial palpi. 7. Paraglossae of D. febrilis, ventral view, showing the small remains of the mandibles on the ventral side of the labium, corresponding with those on the labium of B. hortulanus. 8. Trophi of Conops quadrifaseiata Deg. Lateral view, showing the very rudi- mentary state of the maxillary palpi, while the labial are aborted. 9. Labrum of Jlolichopus griseipennis Stan. Lateral view. 10. Hypopharynx of J), griseipennis. Lateral view. 11. Labium and paraglossre of D. griseipennis. Ventral view, showing the fused mandibles and the cardines of the maxillae on the dorsal side. 12. Labium and paraglossae of I), griseipennis. Dorsal view. 13. One of the tracheae of D. griseipennis, further enlarged. 14. Labial palpus of D. griseipennis. 15. Trophi of Lonchoptera flavicauda Mg. Lateral view. 16. „ of Pipunculus zonatus Ztt. Lateral view. 38 Transactions of the Society. through larval and pupal stages, from tie maxilla?. On making some fresh dissections of the head of C. plumosus L., mounted with- out pressure, I was able to make out very clearly the cardines of the maxillae, and to see the connection with the palpi, thus proving Mr. Hammond's point and the reliability of my rale. I have also heads of C. dorsaiis, C. viridis Mcq., and G. riparius Mg., which agree with C. p>lumosus. In many of the Tipulida? a special difficulty is encountered. The cardines of the maxilla?, which in the very large majority of species are so useful a guide, are replaced by two median apodemes, one on the dorsal, and one on the ventral side. That on the dorsal side thickens anteriorly and bifurcates, sending out symmetrical arms to the sides, to which the four-jointed palpi are attached. On examining this apodeme with high powers, a suture can easily be made out, running down the centre, and obviously this part is a fusion of the maxillary cardines. The ventral apodeme is without lateral processes, but a suture is evident, and I homologise this part with the mandibles. Tipula olcracea L. has a very imperfect labium and hypopharynx, and the whole mouth-parts seem to have undergone great changes (pi. V. fig. 11). The Ptychopterida? are also of this type, but the cardines are separate. Urioptera tceni- onota Mg. has a well-marked labrum of the usual type in Diptera, while an insect which Mr. J. H. Verrall places in the same family (Limnobida?), the common Trichocera hiemalis Deg. has maxilla', a ciliated hypopharynx and well-developed labium, and would be placed in Group 2. In the Brachycera, the Stratiomida? have the trachea? well de- veloped and numerous, but not occupying the whole space of the paraglossa?, as in the Muscida? ; the palpi have two joints, and in S. chameleon L. the palpifers can be differentiated ; the maxilla? are very minute in this species, almost obliterated ; they are more visible in Microschrysa polita L., but have quite disappeared in Chloromyia formosa Scop. The labrum is rather formless, and I have not seen a ciliated hypopharynx in any species (pi. VI. fig. 1). The Conopoda? have a specialised type of mouth-part, resembling the Syrphida?, but having no maxilla?. In some species the labrum is short, and the hypopharynx long ; the latter organ seems to find its protection in the fold of the labium. In Conops quctdrifasciata Deg. it is remarkable that only the rudiments of the maxillary palpi are present, while the labial are wholly aborted. I know of no exactly parallel case, but in Sepsis cynipsca L. the palpi are exceedingly minute, but are labial, and remnants of the maxilla? are present, two or three hairs marking the place of their palpi (pi. VI. fig. 8). Group 4. — To determine the homologies of the mouth-parts in Bibio requires a dissection of the parts, and a comparison with the The Mouth-parts of the Nemocera, etc. By W. Wesche. 39 other genera, Scatopse and Dilophus. From dissection it is seen that the palpi do not adhere to the cardines of the maxillae, and are quite away from them. This is exceedingly difficult to under- stand, because these four-jointed palpi are so much like the palpi in Simulium, Psychoda, Chironomus and Ehyphus, which are un- doubtedly maxillary. However, similar palpi are found in Dilophus, agreeing in all particulars, having the sense-organ in the second joint, and these are undoubtedly labial. Scatopse has single- jointed labial palpi. The mandibles are found adhering to the bases of the paraglossae on the ventral side, and enclosed in the membrane of the labium ; the tracheae have a very modest develop- ment, but the labrum is strong, is hinged on to the cardines of the maxilla?, and the hypopharynx is large, seems to have fused at its base with some portion of the submentum or fulcrum, and is much ciliated. The labium is exceedingly long in Dilophus, short in Bibio, and still shorter in Scatopse. The mouth-parts of these three genera are at first sight unlike, yet they will be found to have characters in common ; in Dilophus they seem specialised for flower-sucking ; and, as in Bibio, though smaller, the vestiges of the mandibles can be seen on the ventral side. Scatopse is so small that it can readily penetrate with its whole body into the nectaries of most flowers ; I have often seen it feeding on the juices of the ivy blossom. Bibio also has a suctorial mouth-part, but the armature on the fore legs, found in both sexes, inclines me to suspect it of occasionally seizing prey (pi. VI. figs. 2-7). The mouth-parts of Dolichopus possess one feature which separates them from all other families in Diptera : the tracheae on the paraglossae are of the most curious description. Under high powers, each one of them appears to be made up of a number of sub rectangular, semi-transparent cells, which decrease in size as the tracheae approaches the edge of the labellum ; at its extremity is ii very short blunt hair inserted in a minute cylinder. In Medcr- terits truncorum Mg. it has another appearance, rather granular and less differentiated. In most genera of this family the cardines of the maxilke are very anteriorly placed— the points on which the palpi are usually situated, (close to the base of the labrum,) are quite at the extremity of the paraglossae, and have feathered pro- cesses at the extremities, which are probably the remains of the maxillary palpi. The mentum has a central rod, which ends in a point between the paraglossae ; this rod has a median suture, and is homologous with the paired rods found in Bibio and the ventral •apodeme in Tipula, and represents the mandibles. This character is found in several families, and marks them off from the Muscidao, where the mandibles are on the dorsal side of the labium. The labrum is elaborately toothed and haired, and covers a powerful hypopharynx, with a deep channel, connected with a suctorial trachea, the true pharynx. The palpi are single-jointed, with a few 40 Transactions of the Society. long hairs, but with no central sense-organs, such as are seen in the second joint of Bibio and of most Nemocera (pi. VI. figs. 9-14). One interesting specialisation is found in Orthochilc nigroccrulu Ltr., which has an elongated labium, a totally different arrangement of the cardines, and a general similarity to the mouth-parts in the Muscicke. This lengthening of the labium probably enables the insect to reach the nectaries of flowers ; most of the other species are raptorial, haunt marshy spots, and -feed on minute insects and Gastropods (pi. VII. fig. 1). The mouth in the Phoridse has the cardines in the usual place, and working the labrum and hypopharynx ; the latter part has in some species a curious double point, which reaches well up to the tip. Some species have a toothed labrum, which is a character of the Dolichopidoe, and accentuates the affinity which these two families have to each other. Though the tracheae on the paraglossa> are of a different type from each other, it is remarkable that they have also the short blunt hair in the cylinder at the extremity ; this is a striking affinity, as I am not aware of this structure being found in any other families in this situation. I have often seen these insects on plants and on window-panes, but I have never seen them attack prey. Their appearance is against them, but I have no evidence that thev are of raptorial habits (pi. VII. fig. 2). Group 5. — As I have dealt with the first section of this group in previous papers,* I shall confine myself to giving a list of species in which I have found the characteristic rudimentary palpus : — Myioccra carinifrons Fin. Graphomyia metadata Scop. Mesembrina mcridiana L. Musca domestica L. M. corvina F. Cyrtoncura stabidans Fin. * ' Undeseribtd Palpi in Diptera,' Jour. Roy. Micr. Soc. 1902 ; ' The Labial and Maxillary Palpi in Diptera,' Trans. Linn. Soc. London, Zool., ser. 2, vol. ix. EXPLANATION OF PLATE ATI. 1. Tropin of OrthocMle nigrcecerula Ltr. Lateral view. 2. „ of undetermined species of Phora. Dorsal view. 3. „ of Ha matdbia irritans L. 4. Teeth on the labium of //. irritans. 5. „ of Aorellia ttriolata Mg. (Cordyluridse). 6. Tropin of Ccelopa .frigid a Mg. (Phycodromida)). Dorsal view 7. „ of Helomyza rufa I In. Dorsal viev*. 8. Labial palpus ot Stiomyza cinerella Fin. 9. Maxilla of £>. cinerella. 10. Tracheae of Sapromyza prsew ta Fin. Dorsal view. 11. „ of 8. pneufta. Viewed ventrally. 12. Maxilla of S. praeueta. JOURN. R.MICR.SOG. 1904, PI. VII 4 ^•ve,"//' r. , f i • : i ! 10. b C. 11 W Wesc he, del London Etching Co., enc;. MOUTH-PARTS OF DIPTERA. JOURN. R.MICR.SOC, 1904. PI. V *A \<" 2. Sm 10. / i / )Wv . -M: W . Wesche, del. I .ondon Etching Co., ens;. MOUTH-PARTS OF DIPTERA. The Mouth-parts of the Ncmoccra, etc. By W. Wesche. 41 Morellia hortorum Fin. Policies lardaria F. Hyetodcsia lucorum Fin. H. obscura Mg. R. Iceta Fin. H. perdita Mg. //. bascdis Ztt. H. sudetica Sclmbl. Mydea impuncta Fin. Spilogastcr communis Dsv. $. Jlagripcs End. $. idiginosa Fin. Hydrotca occulta Mg. i/! dentipes F. if. mcteorica L. Ophyra leucostoma W. Hylemyia strigosa F. iT". cardui Mg. iT". pullula Ztt. Lasiops stemciema Kov. Anthomyia pluvialis L. J. radicum L. ^4. sulciventris Ztt. Pegomyia bicolor W. Homalomyia canicvlaris L. i^T. hamata Mcq. Azelia macquartii Stceg. All these insects are suctorial. EXPLANATION OF PLATE Till. 1. Trophi of Seoptera vibrans L. Showing the supposed ludiinenfs of mandibles. Dorsal view. 2. Trophi of an undetermined species of Cldorops. 3. Diagram of the head of Melophagus ovinus L. This is drawn as a transparent object, and shows the bulb of the labium and the cardiacs of the maxillae showing through the chitin of the head. 4. The teetli on the end of the labium of M. ovinus. 5. Maxilla of Balioptera combiuala L. (5. Trophi of Saltella Scutellaria Flu. Showing the four palpi and the palpigers. Dorsal view. 7. Trophi of Ephydra coarctata Fin. Lateral view, showing the curious trachea;. 8. Maxilla of Mosillus subsultans F. Showing the palpus, the atrophying lacinia, and the alteration in the cardo and stipes. '.). Organ in the submentum of Drosophila funebris F. Gizzard (?). 10. Maxilla of D. funebris. 11. Trophi of Borborus cquinus Fin. Lateral view, showing the labial palpi, a palpiger, and a maxillary palpus. 12. Tip of the labium of Glossina morsitans Westw. Showing the teeth and tho ufhnity to M. ovinus and H. irritants. 42 Transactions of the Society. In the second section of this group the mouth-parts are very much the same as in the Muscidae ; the trachere in the Loncho- pteridae are numerous, but are "without teeth at the base, the palpi are quite the same in appearance as in the Muscidae ; the hypopharynx is a relatively strong, sharp, hairless lancet. The paraglossae in the flower-haunting Pipunculidae are practically the same as in the Lonchopteridae ; the palpi resemble those found in the Empidae, but are labial and have a well-marked sense-organ (pi. VI. figs. 15, 16). The specialised forms in the Tachinidae are adaptations, en- abling the insects to explore the deeper cavities of flowers ; in the Muscidae, to pierce skin and suck blood. Siphona gcniculata Deg., & cristata F., and Prosena syharita F., are flower-suckers. Siphona has an elongated labium, somewhat resembling that of JSMngia campestris Mg., of the Syrphidae. Prosena is of a type which has gained an evil notoriety in Glossina and Stomoxys; but this insect, with different habits, has different modifications. The tip of the labium, which is hardened, laminated and toothed in Glossina, has remains of tracheae, but no vestiges of teeth (pi. VIII. fig. 12). Glossina has several interesting developments of palpi in dif- ferent species, mostly in the direction of length, resembling in this particular our English Hccmatobia ii ritans L. (pi. VII. figs. 3, 4). Glossina, Hamatobia, and Stomoxys have lost the tracheae, though the paraglossaa are still evident, and they retain, and indeed have developed the teeth, as found in the Muscidae. The palpi, notwithstanding their extreme length and important func- tion, are based on the membrane of the labium ; they are therefore labial and not maxillary, as a recent writer with some pretensions to experience has named them.* The cardines are connected with the labrum. The genera Ccenosia and Caricea in the An thorn yidae are char- acterised by a very decided increase in the size of the teeth,resembling in this respect the Cordyluridae, where they are very marked, and probably reach their largest modification (pi. VII. fig. 5). On account of the teeth, and of the general character of the mouth-parts, I think Mr. Verrall at fault when he transferred the little fly Schccnomyza littorclla Fin., to the Agromyzidae. It is a decided Anthomyid. The mouth-parts have all the characters found in the Anthomyida?, and it shows its relationship to the Ccenosia group, by the large teeth on the paraglossae, a character quite absent in the smaller acalyptrate Muscidae. Though the Cordyluridae are raptorial, the tropin, with the exception of the teeth, are but little modified ; the hypopharynx is a trifle stouter and longer than in the house flies. * Dr. H. J. Hansen, 'Monograph of the Tsetse-flics,' p. 114. E. E. Austen, London, 1S03. Dr. Bar sen has also committed himself, in the statement that there aie no if mnar.ts of maxillae in the head of Glossina. TJi c Mouth-parts of the Nemocera, etc. By W. Wesche. 43 Scatophaga is a haunter of the ivy blossom, and feeds there as well as on fresh cow-dung, besides picking up " unconsidered trifles " in the way of flies. The Ortalidse, the Trypetida?, and the Lonclueida?, have no teeth on the paraglossa?, and have numerous minute trachea? some- what like those found in the Pipunculidse. Seoptera vibrans L. has curious paired processes on each side of the labium, which may be vestiges of the mandibles ; while the cardines of the maxilla? take a form which is also met with in the Ephydrida? and the Borborida? ; it sends out a limb in the centre, at right angles to the rest of the organ. Ulidia dcmandata F. has the cardines straight, as in the Anthomyida?, as has also the Trypetid Acidia heraclei L. The Lonchseidse have mostly the cardines of the same type as Seoptera (pi. VIII. fig. 1). The obscure and difficult family of the Chloropoda? has a dif- ference in the structure of the trachea?, which would enable an observer to separate these insects ; the trachea? are stouter, fewer, and more markedly chitinous (pi. VIII. fig. 2). In the parasitic Hipposboscida?, there is a venation well re- moved from that of other families, a modification of shape, and a type of mouth-part, that makes the parentage of this family not at all obvious. But in the mouth-parts are two points that suggest a strong probability of a descent from one of the blood- sucking Muscida?. This is strengthened by a fact in the life- history of Glossina, that insect being viviparous. This would be a step to the curious condition existing in the Pupipara, in which sub-order the young are brought forth as pupa?, having passed the egg and larval state in the oviduct. The most striking feature of the mouth-parts is a pair of large palpi, which act as a sheath for a chitinous tube, which is the piercing and blood-sucking apparatus of the insect. This tube has some exceedingly minute serration at its extremity ; and a very high magnification shows these to be teeth, similar, in cha- racter and relationship to their support, to those on the labium of Glossina, Stomoxys and Haimatobia. Further, the tube swells out at its base into a bulb (pi. VIII. figs. 3, 4, 12 ; pi. VII. figs. 3, 4). Taking these facts into consideration, I consider the proboscis in Hippobosca as clearly homologous with the same organ in Glossina, Stomoxys, Haimatobia, or Prosena, and it is therefore a modification of the labium, and the palpi are labial palpi. It may be suggested that a Tabanid ancestry was not impro- bable, and that a similar serration can be seen on the labrum of the Tabanida?. This objection may be disposed of by showing the labrum as present in some species of the Hippoboscida? as a separate part. The cardines which I have shown to be so constant in Diptera are present, but have changed positions, seeming to work the labium at an angle to the plane of the head. 44 Transactions of the Society. Group 6. — The Phycodromidae have paraglossae much of the same type as the Ortalidae, and, like them, totally devoid of teeth. The labial palpi are stiffly haired, and have a long hair on the tip. The maxillae end in a leaf-shaped scale, covered with a fine pubescence. I have mostly taken these insects on sea-weed, and they probably feed on the juices of those plants (pi. VII. fig. 6). The mouth-parts of the Heliomyzidae have but little to dis- tinguish them from those of the Phycodromidae ; the likeness in the paraglossae is very marked, the ends of the maxillae are some- times identical in shape, but have a finer pubescence. The labial palpi in those examples I have examined have no long hair on the lip. I have usually found these insects on damp herbage, and there they probably find their food (pi. VII. fig. 7). The Sciomyzidae have a great affinity with the Heliomyzidae, and we may perhaps consider the ciliated costal vein which dis- tinguishes the latter family as almost a generic character, though it is undoubtedly a useful one. The tracheae are as numerous as in the two preceding families ; the maxillae are of the same shape, with perhaps a trifle less pubescence ; and the palpi are haired, and with a long hair on the tip as in the Phycodromidae (pi. VII. figs. 8, 9). The Sapromyzidae have the same type of maxilla?. There are no teeth on the paraglossae, but the rings of the tracheae are strong and thick, and the part is very different from that found in the three preceding families (pi. VII. figs. 10-12). Group 7 is wholly confined to the acalyptrate Muscidae. The character which distinguishes it from the previous group is the presence of four palpi. Sometimes the laciniae may be thought to be present, but even then it is so thickly haired as to make certainty as to its real nature impossible. The Opomyzidae have tracheae like the Phycodromidae. The maxillae in Balioptera are characteristic, the cardines rather rounded, and tapering to the part that is ordinarily the lacinia, but here is thickly haired and distinctly like a palpus. 0. gcrmina- tioncs L. differs, in having the maxillae of the same type as the Phycodromidae. These insects can be taken anywhere and every- where in long grass (pi. VIII. fig. 5). I have already referred to the peculiar mouth-parts of Sepsis cynipsca L., in my remarks on Group 3. Ncmopoda cylindrica F. explains the homologies, as it possesses well-developed labial palpi, and distinct maxillary palpi in the usual position on the cardines. The tracheae are less marked than in Sapromyza. SaUella, scutettaris Fin. is very much the same type as Nemopoda (pi. VIII. fig. 6). In the Ephydridae the mouth is relatively much developed. There is great variability in the character of the tracheae, such sur- The Mouth-parts of the Nemocera, etc. By W. Wesche. 45 prising modifications as the toothed trachea} of Hydrcllia griseola Fin. being found. In Ephydra coarctata, or Parhydra coarctata Fin., of Mr. Verrall's list, are remarkable trachea?, which may reasonably be supposed to be primitive forms. They consist of a number of hairs, arranged in double lines, which arch over and form passages, capable of drawing up fluid by capillary attraction. This insect I have taken in great numbers on marshy spots, and it may be that it is a special modification, enabling the insect to feed on infusoria ; but as it is in this family that I have found complete maxilla? in one species {Hydrcllia griseola)* and remains in several others, I am inclined to think them of very archaic type. The labrum is a rather shapeless fold of skin, pierced with the sockets of hairs, and the hypopharynx is very rudimentary. The larger palpi are labial and thin. The cardines of the maxilla? bear palpi, which in several species are quite relatively large (pi. VIII. fig. 7). In Mosillus subsidtans F. are nearly complete maxilla? ; the lacinia? are atrophying, and appear exactly in the same state as in H. griseola ; but the palpi are very hairy, though the gala? have gone ; the stipites and cardines are much altered (pi. VIII. fig. 8). Drosophila funebris F. has trachea? somewhat similar to Sapro- myza preusta Fin. ; the maxillary palpi are of the type seen in the Opomyzida? ; the fulcrum is curious, and has an organ in the interior which seems to be some sort of gizzard, or crushing- apparatus. The palpi are relatively not so large as in the Opomyzida? (pi. VIII. figs. 9, 10). The Borborida? have characteristic tropin with curious large tracheae, and the paraglossa? are united and without a median division. The maxillary palpi are very marked in some species, but almost all the other parts of the maxilla? have disappeared ; the cardines, with their characteristic joint or hinge, cannot be made out, and only the stipites remain. The large development of the mentum, and the character of the maxillary palpi, bring this family very close to the Ephydridae. The seta? at the base of the labial palpi, which represent the palpigers, are very constant in this family (pi. VIII. fig. 11). Group 8 contains but one family, the CEstrida? ; these extra- ordinary flies are quite devoid of any developed mouth-part, two tubercles representing the elaborate structures of the ordinary insect mouth. A small buccal orifice is visible, surrounded by a chitinous ring, which is in some places shortly but thickly haired ; more anteriorly placed are two chitinous arches, which appear to cover another cavity. What these parts homologise with, it is difficult to say, (1) but the tubercles have structures on their * 'The Labial and Maxillary Palpi in Diptera,' Trans. Linn. Soc. Lon Ion, Zool., ser. 2, vol. ix., pp. 223-229, figs. 21, 22. 46 Transactions of the Society. surface, (2) are paired organs, and (3) occupy positions, which several facts suggest that they represent the labial palpi (pi. III. fig. 4). Summary. (1) On reviewing these eight groups, it is apparent that they are artificial, so that families that are closely related to each other are occasionally in different sections, though it oftener happens that they are in neighbouring, or even in the same group. (2) It will also be seen that the Nemocera have characters in the tropin, as well as in the antenna;. Examples of species with four-jointed palpi and a ciliated hypopharynx will be found in every family, and these parts may, when in that condition, be considered as distinguishing characters — establishing a relationship with the Asilidse and the Empidae, in the sub-order Brachycera. The palpi are maxillary in every case, with the exception of the Bibionida?, and it is difficult to understand why this family has deviated. (3) It seems that Dilophus gives the clue to the original situa- tion of the labial palpi, (4) while Chrysops shows the palpigers ; these have altered their position in the Muscidre, but are very constant, and generally to be found at the base of the labial palpi. (5) That as a rule the males of the Culicidse are harmless, but their trophi are variable, and may in some instances be fully developed. (G) The mandibles of Anopheles differ from those of other Culicidas. (7) In some males of the genus Culex, and related genera, is found a false joint on the labium. This possibly marks the spot where the labial palpi were articulated. In some genera this is constant, in others variable. (8) The median apodemes in Tipula are a fusion of the mandibles on the ventral, and of the cardines of the maxilla; on the dorsal side. (9) Species exist in Diptera (apart from (Estridaj) in which both palpi are aborted. (10) Homologisation of the trophi of the Dolichopida?, and their aberration both from the Nemocera and Musca types. (11) Affinities exist in the trophi of Dolichopus and Phora. (12) The palpi in Glossina are labial. (13) The Hippoboscidffi are descended from blood-sucking Muscida?. Homology of their trophi. (14) Archaic types of trachoe and maxilloe in the Ephydridre. (15) Gizzard in the submentum (fulcrum) of Drosophila. (16) The trophi in the different species of a family are some- times variable, especially in the Brachycera. The Dolichopidee and Empida? present the greatest divergences in this respect, and it is- The Mouth-parts of the Nemoccra, etc. By W. Wcsche. 47 only in the Cyclorrhapha that types of mouth-parts seem firmly established, and the specialisations easily homologised. In the whole order, the mandibles are only present in a few families, and even in those families they are often absent in the males. The palpi are very variable, and when the maxillary are present the labial are absent, though occasionally rudiments of the absent part are found, more often of the maxillary than of the labial. The paraglossre, which are considered typical of the order, only occasionally disappear, as in the specialised Muscidse and the Hippoboscidfe. The most constant parts are the stipites and cardines of the maxilla3, which are only absent in the (Estridre ; and it is very possible that a more comprehensive study of that family than I have hitherto had the opportunity of making, may show them to be present in some species. It follows from this constant variability, that the tropin cannot be regarded as unfailing guides in classification, but I think that this variability will be of assistance in considering the relations of families ; on the other hand, the persistence of types in the Cyclorrhapha makes the mouth-parts of great use in studying the phylogeny of that sub-order. 48 OBITUARY. Charles Thomas Hudson, M.A. LL.D. F.R.S. Hon. F.E.M.S. 1828-1903. Charles T. Hudson was the son of John Corrie Hudson, of Guildford, and was born at Brompton on March 11, 1828. He was educated at the Grange. Sunderland, and at St. John's College, Cambridge. In 1852 he took his degree, being bracketed fifteenth Wrangler in the Mathematical Tripos. From 1855 to 1860 he was head master of Bristol Grammar School, and from 1861 to 1881 of Manilla Hall, Clifton. Dr. Hudson became a Fellow of the Society in 1872, served on the Council for some years, and was President from 1888 to 1890. In 1889 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1901 Honorary Fellow of the Royal Microscopical Society. Dr. Hudson was always devoted to microscopical studies, and liis researches on the Rotifera are of world-wide knowledge and repute ; in this branch of science he was the chief authority of hi.s time. In 1886 he published, in collaboration with Mr. P. H. Gosse, F.R.S., The Rotifera, or Wheel Animalcules. He was the discoverer of several new genera and species of Rotifera, among which may be mentioned Pedalion minim. The results of his researches and observations were communicated to various scientific journals, our own being specially favoured. His addresses were charming in style, and his lectures on his favourite topics were exceedingly interesting both to hear and see, for they were elegantly illustrated by a method which he had made peculiarly his own. The outlines of the objects were indicated by means of dots and lines, cut out of a large brown paper screen, the perforations when necessary being covered in Math coloured transparencies. When illuminated from behind, a dark-ground effect was produced, which was most effective and elegant. Mr. Hudson was twice married, first to a daughter of Mr. W. B. Tibbits, of Braunston, Northamptonshire, and in 1858 to a daughter of Mr. Freelove Hammond. He died on October 24, 1903, at Hillside, Shanklin, where he had resided for some time. List of papers by Dr. C. T. Hudson in the Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society : — 1879. On (Ecistcs umhella and other Rotifers. Note on M. Deby's paper (on Pedalion). 1881. On (Ecistcs janus and Floscularia trifolium, two New Species of Rotifers. Obituary. 49 1883. Five New Floscules, with a Note on Prof. Leidy's Genera of Acyclus and Dictyophora. On Asplanchna Ebbcsbornii nov. sp. 1885. On Four New Species of the Genus Floscularia, and Five other New Species of Rotifera. 1889. President's Address : On the Distribution of Rotifera. 1890. President's Address : On some Needless Difficulties in the Study of Natural History. 1891. President's Address : On some Doubtful Points in the Natural History of the Rotifera. Other Papers by Dr. Hudson. On Rhinops vitrea, a new Rotifer. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist, iii., 1869. On Triarthra longiseta. Monthly Microsc. Journ. i., 1869. Notes on Hydatina senta. Monthly Microsc. Journ. ii., 1869. On Synchcuta mordax. Monthly Microsc. Journ. iv., 1870. On Pterodina valvata sp. n. Monthly Microsc. Journ. v., 1871. On a new Rotifer. Monthly Microsc. Journ. v., 1871. Note on Pedalion mirum. Monthly Microsc. Journ. vi., 1871. On Euchlanis triquctra and E. dilatata. Monthly Microsc. Journ. viii., 1872. Is Pedalion a Rotifer ? Monthly Microsc. Journ. viii., 1872. On Pedalion mirum. Quarterly Journ. Microsc. Sci. xii., 1872. Remarks on Mr. Henry Davis's paper ' On the Desiccation of Rotifers.' Monthly Microsc. Journ. ix., 1873. On some Male Rotifers (1874). Monthly Microsc. Journ. xiii., 1875. On the classification and affinities of the Rotifera. Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1875. On Cephalosiphon (limnias) and a new Infusorian (Archimeda remex). Monthly Microsc. Journ. xiv., 1875. On a new Melicerta (M. tyro). Monthly Micros. Journ. xiv., 1875. Feb. 17th, 1904 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY (principally invertebrata and cryptogamia), MICEOSCOPY, Etc.* ZOOLOGY. VERTEBRATA. a. Embryology.f Mendel's Law of Heredity 4 — W. E. Castle gives a lucid account of the discovery which Gregor Mendel made in 18GG — the discovery of a law of heredity. The law was re-discovered independently in 1900 by I)e Vries, Correns, and Tschermak, who were engaged in the study of plant hybrids. It remained, however, for Bateson, two years later, to point out the full importance and the wide applicability of the law. To make the matter clear in a summary, we follow the headings of the analysis which Castle has given. (1) The Law of Dominance. — When mating occurs between two animals or plants differing in some character, it often happens that all the offspring exhibit the character of one parent only, and that is called the " dominant " character ; while the character that is not seen in the immediate offspring (though still part of the heritage) is called " recessive.''' When white mice are crossed with grey mice, all the off- spring are grey ; the grey colour is dominant, the white colour recessive. Parents with distinctive characters A and B, yield hybrid offspring with the character A (B) or B (A), the parentheses being used to indicate a recessive character not visible in the individual. This is the law of dominance. (2) Peculiar Hybrid Forms. — The law of dominance is not of uni- versal applicability. (1) The cross-bred offspring, e.g. of peas differing in height, may be intermediate between the parents (Ax B = -~- ). (2) The cross-bred offspring, e.g. of brown-seeded and white-seeded beans, may exhibit what seems to be an intensification of the character * The Society arc not intended to be denoted by the editorial " we," and they do not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers noted, nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of this part of the Journal is to present a summary of the papers at actually published, and to describe and illustrate Instruments, Api aratus, etc., which are either new or havo not been previously described in this country. f This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so called, but also those dealing with Evolution, Develo] ment, Reproduction, and allied subjects. X Pica Amer. Acad., xxxviii. (190!) pp. 535-48. SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES. 51 of one parent (A x B = A 2 ). (3) The cross-bred offspring, e.g. of spotted, black-and-white mice and albino mice, may have a charactei entirely different from either parent, " a character of its own " (A X B = C). (4) The cross-bred offspring, e.g. of white and bnff pigeons, may resemble an ancestral form, may exhibit " reversion " (A X B = R). (5) But, finally, as with grey and white mice, the off- spring may show patently the character of one parent only (A X B = A (B) or B (A), according to the law of dominance. (8) Purity of the Germ-cells. - — The great discovery of Mendel is this : The hybrid, whatever its own character, produces ripe germ-cells which bear only the pure character of one parent or the other. The hybrid A (B) or B (A) will have germ-cells, bearing either the character A or the character B, hut not both ; and A's and B's will he produced in equal numbers. This is the law of " segregation " or the law of the "purity of the germ-cells." " It bids fair," Mr. Castle says, " to prove as fundamental to a right understanding of the facts of heredity as is the law of definite proportions in chemistry. From it follow many important consequences." A first consequence is polymorphism of the second and later hybrid generations, as may be represented in the following scheme : — A x B = A (B) or B (A). A (B) x A (B) = (1) A set of pure A's, which if inbred will breed true to that character ever afterwards. (2) A set of similar pure B's approximately equal in number to the pure A's. (3) A third set of A B's like those of the first hybrid generation. If this be expressed in terms of the germ-cells, it seems to mem this : — A (B) produces germ-cells bearing either the character A or the character B. If a male germ-cell A meet a female germ-cell A, the result is an offspring pure A ; if a male germ-cell B meet a female germ-cell B, the result is an offspring pure B. As these pure A's and pure B's occur in approximately equal numbers, the inference is pro- bably correct that the original hybrid A (B) produces two equal sets of gametes, dominantly A's and B's. There is one chance each for the combinations A A and B B, and two chances for the combination A B. And the whole progeny tends to occur in the proportions 1 A 4- 2 A B + 1 B. As a mattter of fact this does occur. In his experiments with the Chinese primrose (Primula sinensis) Bateson produced an unfixable hybrid, " Giant Lavender," by crossing a magenta-red with a white flowering variety tinged with pink. This hybrid constantly produces plants bearing magenta-red and white flowers respectively, as well as other plants bearing lavender flowers in the proportion of 1:2:1, the exact numbers being 12 : 23 : 11 and 9:20:9. In cases of complete dominance, only two categories of offspring will be recognisable, and these will be in the ratio of 3:1, but the larger group on further breeding breaks up into two classes : first, E 2 52 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO dominants ; secondly, hybrids ; i.e. into groups A and A (B) in ratio of 1 : 2. Mendel found bis results to come very close to tbe theoretical pre- supposition, when he crossed yellow with green peas. He found the numbers to be 3:1, and the recessive or green seed produced only green seed ; while of the yellow or dominant, one in three produced only dominants, but two out of three produced hybrids, and this gave him A, 2 A (B), B, the theoretical proportions. Mr. G. M. Allen has found the same proportions to be true in the case of crossing white mice with grey mice. The correctness of Mendel's hypothesis of the purity of the germ- cells and of their production in equal numbers, is shown by back- crossing of a hybrid with one of the parental forms. For example, in a case of simple dominance the first generation will all be D (R). Any one of them back-crossed with the recessive parent will produce 50 p.c. pure recessives and 50 p.c. hybrids. For hybrid produces germ-cells . . D + R For recessive parent produces germ-cells R + R The possible combinations are 2 D (R) + 2 R And this has been proved for peas and for mice. In dealing with cross-breeding between parents differing in more than one character, we find in the second and later hybrid generations, individuals possessing new combinations of the characters found in the parents, indeed, all possible combinations of these characters will be found, and in the proportion demanded by chance. Take parents differing in two characters A, B (the recessive phases a, b). The immediate offspring resulting from the cross will be all alike, A B (a b). The second and later generations of hybrids will contain the stable classes A B, A b, a B, a b, also the unstable forms A B (a b), A (a) b, and a B (b). One, therefore, of each of the stable combinations occurs in every sixteen " second-generation " offspring ; and only the individual which possesses both recessive characters can at once be set aside as pure. Moreover, nine out of every sixteen " second generation " hybrids will possess the two dominant characters, but only one will be pure with, regard to those characters, for four will be hybrid in one character, and four will be hybrid in both characters. Mendel generalised these statements as follows : In cases of com- plete dominance (parents differing in n ways), the number of different classes in the second generation will be 3", of which 2" will be stable ; the remainder will be hybrid, though indistinguishable from pure in- dividuals, and the smallest number of individuals which, in the second hybrid generation, Avill allow of one pure individual to each visibly different class will be 4". This gave rise to a new conception of " purity " : An animal or plant is pure if it produces gametes of only one sort, even though its grandparents may among themselves have possessed opposite characters. Several exceptions to Mendel's law have been observed, for example : (1) Mosaic inheritance, in which a pair of characters usually related as dominant and recessive occur in a balanced relationship side by side Z30L0GY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 53 in the hybrid, and frequently in its germ-cells also. This balanced condition, once obtained, is stable under close breeding, for the germ- cells are not D or R, but |DR, and this breeds true to itself ; but this is very easily disturbed by cross-breeding, e.g. if the gamete unites with a pure R or a pure D, the result is D (R) ; in some cases it may be J D (R) • R, and this latter hypothesis accounts for the reappearance of, say, spotted mice after their disappearance for a generation in con- sequence of crossing. (2) Stable hybrid forms may occur, and this occurrence may be explained either by the gametes bearing the balanced relationship | D R, or by one of the gametes which unite, bearing the character D and the other the character R. (3) Coupling (or complete correlation) may exist between two or more characters, so that they form a compound unit not separable in heredity, e.g. the blue flower and purple-coloured stems of Datura, and in animals, white hair and pink eyes. (4) Disintegration of characters apparently simple may take place in consequence of cross-breeding. Thus the grey coat-colour of the house-mouse is always transmitted as a dominant unit in primary crosses with its white variety, but in the second generation a number of black appear. These black mice belong to the category of dominant in- dividuals, but they have only the black constituent of the grey coat ; the remaining constituent, a rufous tint, has become separated, and it may have become latent (recessive). (5) Departures from the ratios of dominants to recessives may be explained in some cases as due to inferior vigour, and so greater mortality, on the part of dominants or recessives respectively. (6) Cases of apparent reversal of dominance may arise from " false hybridisation " or induced parthenogenesis, where the one gamete has served merely to stimulate the other to development without uniting with it. It is possible, however, that one of a pair of characters may be sometimes dominant, sometimes recessive. Sex may be a case of this sort. Mendel's principles strengthen the view that species arise by dis- continuous variation. They explain also why new types are especially variable, how one variation causes others, and why certain variations are so persistent in their occurrence. Regeneration of Hind Limbs and Tail in Amphibia.* — P. Wintre- bert finds that in the larvse of Anura -regeneration of the tail is rapid and regular, and independent of the nervous system. In Siredon, after spinal extirpation, it proceeds regularly. His conclusion is that regenera- tion and ontogeny proceed in the same fashion ; the various parts are formed in the same order in both cases, and apparently independently of nervous control in the ordinary sense. Interstitial Cells of the Mammalian Testicle.f — P. Bouin and P. Ancel have investigated the morphological and functional relations of the testis and its interstitial cells, and make out an independent function for the latter. They find that interstitial cells exist in the Mammals * Comptes Kendus, cxxxvii. (1003) pp. 761-3. t Arch. Zool. Exp., 1903, pp. 437-523 (3 pis.). 04 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO which have been examined ; their abundance varies with the species. Ira the first place it is noted that they present all the cytological characters of glandular elements, — the structure of the nucleus, the presence in the cytoplasm of numerous secretion products (granules and vesicles, fat, pig- ment, and crystalloids), and the existence of a cycle of secretion. These cells possess a relative independence — ontogenetic, structural and func- tional — manifesting itself (1) in young testicles, where they are welL developed, while the seminal organ has embryonic characters ; (2) in. adults, where numerous interstitial cells occur far from the seminiferous tubules, in the albuginea, bodies of Highmore, trabecule, where their situation is distinctly perivascular ; (3) in old testicles, where they are entire while the sexual elements are degenerate, or have disappeared ; (4) in various pathological conditions of the testis, in which the inter- stitial tissue persists and presents the usual cytological manifestations. The independence of the two tissues, which the foregoing illustrates, suggests the- function of an internal secretion. The investigators con- sider the interstitial gland an organ which probably elaborates nutritive material for the testis proper, and by its internal secretion controls genital ardour and the determination of the secondary sexual characters. This is an important paper with a bearing on the general question of ductless, glands, as well as on the various functions of the testis. Ova and Larvse of Fishes.* — F. B. Browne gives a very interesting report on the eggs and larva? of Teleostean fishes observed at Plymouth.. His paper contains a large number of interesting data with regard to ( 'allionymus, Zeugoptcrus, Phrgnorhombus, Gadus, and Motella. l\ Histology. Histology of Hyaline Cartilage.! — Kichard Fibich has examined the cartilage of a five-month human embryo, and finds that the cells have prolongations at both poles. These prolongations, which sometimes branch and connect with those of other cells, are protoplasmic continua- tions of the cell, and are most numerous at a distance from the vessels. Near the vessels the cells are isolated in a hyaline substance. He con- siders that this latter arrangement is possibly related to the transference of the nutritive fluid from the vessels to the tissue, since just before ossification the stream is stronger. In the neighbourhood of the vessels. the passage is through the matrical substance, and presumably rapid ; further off it is only from cell to cell. Xerothermic Localities.* — Von Schulthess-Schindler discusses the occurrence of these " dry-warm " areas, with remains of a steppe-like flora, which persist here and there as sunny islands, with a relict fauna not. found in the adjacent areas. The area studied was the Domlesehg — a valley between the Statzerhorn range and the Heinzerberg. The insect fauna is discussed in detail. Human LocomotionJ — Otto Fischer discusses the kinematics of the swinging movements of the legs in walking. This is the fifth memoir * Jouiu. Marine Biol. Assoc, vi. (1903) pp. 59S-G1G. t Anat. Anzei;,'., xxiv. (1903) pp. 209-14. X MT. Schweiz. Entomol. Ges., xi. (1903) pp. 2G-40. § Abb. K. Siicbs. Gcs. Wiss., No. 5 (1903) pp. 321-418 (4 tabular pU). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 55 that he has published on human locomotion — of physical rather than biological interest. Transitory Fissures of Human Brain.*— G. Elliot-Smith points out, that Bischoff, Cunningham, Ecker, and Retzius are in error in ascribing to human foetuses of the fifth and sixth months a " fissura perpendicularis externa." The structure so described he finds is invariably causally related to a "ridge formed by the inward-folding of the membrane joining the occipital and parietal bones in the lambdoid sutural line." It is, in fact, a mechanically produced post-mortem furrow. Another type of "transitory fissure," found in foetuses of third and fourth months, is accounted for by the " puckering of the partially-collapsed and decomposed neopallial bladder." Adaptations to Aquatic Life in Mammals. p— Raymond C. Osburn contributes an able paper on aquatic adaptations in Mammals. He starts from the reasonable supposition that all Mammals were originally terres- trial, and for convenience classifies their adaptations to aquatic life under three headings : those connected with the general form, including the head, trunk and tail regions ; next, those of the limbs ; and lastly, those affecting the integument, lie gives a detailed account of the various adaptations under each heading. With regard to hyperphalangism he agrees with Kiikenthal in saying that it is a result of retarded ossification and the formation of double epiphyses. Under the third heading he calls attention to the loss of hair and of dermal armature. He also discusses the light and spongy nature of the bones in truly aquatic forms. Oxidation of Glucose in Mammalian Blood. :j — L. Jolly finds that in the blood of the ox, there arises as a decomposition product of glucose ■ a very small amount of alcohol, a certain part of which by oxidation is transformed into acetic acid. The Phylogeny of Elephants. § — W. Salensky points out that the phenomena of transformation in the feet of the mammoth follow the same law, which, generally speaking, determines the transformation in the number of toes in Mammals and especially in the change of penta- dactyl feet to the tetra-, tri-, bi-, and monodactyl type in Ungulata. From this it appears that the mammoth, which represented the latest development of the numerous order of prehistoric Elephantidae, was undergoing a process of transformation when it became extinct. It is not easy to understand how pentadactyl proboscidean types such as elephants could have arisen from a type which was undergoing retro- gressive development. The two species of elephants have probably originated from some order of fossil Elephantidai. They have no phylogenetic affinity with the mammoth. Migrations of Right Whales. ||— Gustav Guldberg is of opinion that the migrations of particular species of whale are" regulated by the distribution, the drifting hither and thither, and the season of appearance * Anat. Anzeig., xxiv. (1903) pp. 216-20 (2 figs.). t Anier. Nat , xxxvii. (1903) pp. 651-65. X Comptes Kcndus, cxxxvii. (1903) pp. 771-2. § Biol. Centralbl., sxiii. (1903) pp.'793-S0.J. U Tom. cit, pp. S03-16. 5G SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO of the organisms upon which they feed. On this account the ocean currents, too, have a secondary influence on the migration and appear- ance of the whale in certain regions near the coast. On the other hand, the reproductive instinct has a determining influence. Gravid females seek calm and shallow waters ; and mating also has been observed most frequently during fine quiet weather. The subject is to be continued in a second paper. Canadian Birds.* — John Macoun has completed Part II. of his catalogue of Canadian Birds. It deals with the birds of prey, wood- peckers, fly-catchers, crows, jays, and blackbirds. The catalogue includes many breeding notes, and will be found of interest to British as well as Canadian ornithologists. West Asian Reptiles and Batrachians.j — Dr. F. Werner describes a list, with in some cases brief descriptions, of Reptiles from Asia Minor, chiefly from the Island of Kos, and from N. Persia, collected by Prof. Vosseler and J. Bornmiiller. Sumatra Fishes.} — Dr. W. Volz, during a stay of two and a half years in S.E. Sumatra, collected much zoological material. He describes in this paper the fishes, amongst which there is one new genus Trypano- cheno})sis, nine hitherto undescribed species, and nineteen new to the fauna of Sumatra. Sumatra Lizards.§ — Dr. W. Volz enumerates with brief notes, sixteen species of lizards from Palembang, a place seldom visited by zoologists. c. General. Digestive Ferments in Cephalopods, Echinoderme, and Tunicates.|| Y. Henri finds that hepatic juice from Octopus and Sepia is rich in amylase and proteolytic ferment. It digests albumin of cooked egg, fibrin, and gelatin. The product of the salivary glands is not specially digestive, but its injection in small quantities into crayfish and crabs causes paralysis. There is a little amylase in the blood and much in the kidney. The caecum upon the intestine of Spatangus has glandular walls and contains a yellowish-brown feebly acid liquid, which has a notable quantity of amylase and exhibits the same digestive action as the hepatic fluid of Cephalopods. The perivascular liquid contains a little amylase, but has no proteolytic ferment. Macerations of the pyloric gland of Salpa yielded a liquid rich in amylase, but it did not digest the substances mentioned above, though it had a feeble effect on glycerin. The gland contains many digestive ferments. Maceration-fluids from other parts gave no result. Lake Survey. H — D. J. Scourfield writes a short paper advocating the scientific investigation of lakes, not only because it is desirable to have * Geol. Survey cf Canada, Ottawa, 1903, pp. 219-413. t Zool. Jahrb., xix. (1903) pp. 329-4G. X Tom. cit., pp. 347-420 (2 pis.). § Tom. cit., pp. 421-30. || Comptes Rondus, cxxxvii. (1903) pp. 7G3-5. «[f Proc. South London Entom.and Nat. Hist. Soc, 1902 (published 1903), pp. Gl-C. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 57 them investigated, but also on account of the fact that their investigation will furnish many important details with regard to such problems as the origin of lake-basins, the influence of environment and the laws of variation. In addition they will furnish many interesting facts with regard to the physical conditions of these faunal areas. It has already been shown how important the presenci of the " Sprung schicht " is to the organisms in the lake. Tunicata. Development of Diplosomidse.* — A. Pizon has worked out the development of Diplosomidae during the three weeks after hatching. The facts described are remarkable. From the individual which is hatched, there arises by budding a " bithoracic " individual which in turn gives origin to an ascidiozooid " bithoracique et biventrique" which is described as a " new physiological individual, much more complex than the preceding, with two independent branchiae, two oesophagi super- imposed, two stomachs communicating with the oesophagi, two hearts, whose contractions are rarely synchronous, and two recti superimposed." In the main, there are three remarkable phenomena : (1) the regular regression of the old thorax in the bithoracic specimens ; (2) the persistence of the abdomen from the one ascidiozooid to the other ; (3) the building up of the "bithoracique et &wwtfr/^s. Wien, Bd. cxii. pp. 139-07(1 pi.). t Coiuptes Rendus, cxxxvii. (1903) pp. 681-2. j Tom. cit, pp. 721-3. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 67 sea-urchins and Holothurians with the external medium are semi- permeable, as are also the walls of the water-vascular system, the polian vesicles, and the digestive tubes of Holothurians. Ccelentera. Development of Corymorpha.* — Albert J. May undertook the study of Corymorpha pendida with special reference to the development of the medusoid, and to the origin of the sex cells. His results may be summarised thus : — Corymorpha is a solitary form, developed from a bud of the peduncle wall, in which the attaching filaments and papilla? are modifications of the same structure. The central axis of the stem is filled with parenchyma-like cells in which extensions of the hydranth cavity are found as longitudinal canals. Owing to the development of gland cells in the hydranth cavity, digestion and circulation have become localised. The sex cells are derived from an apical plug of ectodermal cells, and in the case of the ova, the development is by absorption of the germinal tissue, thus giving rise to a syncytium in which the nuclei of the primitive germ cells persist for a time. Depastrum.| — E. S. Russell contributes a few notes on the rare Lucernarid Depastrum cyathiforme (Gosse). Its peculiarly local distribu- tion is difficult to account for, but he has found that it never occurs iii muddy localities, nor in spots where there is much decaying sea-weed. He shows that instead of there being many rows of tentacles, as Haeckel says, there are only two. He found two types, one with a long narrow umbrella and the other with the umbrella as broad as long. His paper is of interest as a record of the fairly abundant occurrence of a Lucernarid around the Cumbraes, etc., which is but little known to the majority of British zoologists. Porifera. Haddonella.J— Igerna B. J. Sollas gives an account of the new genus Hadclonella, a ceratose sponge belonging to the Dendroceratina, paying special attention to the structure and development of the pithed fibres of Haddonella topsenli. She finds that Haddonella and Ianthella are closely allied in having cells in the cortex of their pithed fibres. The growing points consist of naked pith secreted by a many-layered cap of spongo- blasts. Layer after layer of spongoblasts deposit spongin until finally the pith is enclosed in many successive sheaths of spongin, between which lie the spongoblasts, which have diminished and lost their granular contents. These results justify Polejaeff's assertion that the presence of cells in the spongin of sponge-fibres is a character of sub-family or family value. Protozoa. Nuclear Apparatus in Paramcecium.§ — P. Mitrophanow has studied the functions and accompanying changes of structure in the nuclei of Paramecium. The micronucleus plays the principal part in the pheno- mena of multiplication and conjugation ; it exhibits the principal * Araer. Nat.. 1903, pp. 579-99 (12 figs.). t Ann. Nat. Hist. xiii. pp. 62-5 (1 pi.). \ Op. cit, xii. (1903) pp. 557-63 (2 pis.). § Arch. Zool. Exp., 1903. pp. 411-35. F 2 68 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO features of the changes in the nuclei of metazoan cells in division. The raacronucleus dominates above all the functions of nutrition,, assimilation, and movement ; it is very susceptible to changes in the conditions of life, and assumes sometimes, among other transformations, characters which recall the appearance of chromosomes. On the whole, the structure of the nuclei is complicated, and the changes in the macro- nucleus varied in relation to the numerous functions of the organism. Action of Induction Shocks on Ciliata.* — P. Statkewitsch gives a very full account of the behaviour of seventeen different species of Ciliata to stimuli of this type. There are two different groups of results from single induction shocks, which he relates to both physio- logical reaction and to structure, viz. certain movements of the cilia (which occur in all), and alteration of the form of the individual in consequence of the contraction of the outer layers. These results are detailed for each of the species examined. His results contradict Pfliiger's law of polar excitation. Micro-fauna of Boulder Clay.f — Joseph Wright found Foraminifera in three-fourths of 134 samples of boulder clay from widely separate localities. With one or two exceptions all the species found in the clay occurred recently off our coast. More than half the specimens are referable to Nonionina depressula, and Gassidulina crassa, though some- what rare, as a recent British species is often plentiful. Porcellanous forms are usually very rare, and the only arenaceous form is Haplo- phragm htm canariense. North American G-regarines.J — Howard Crawley has prepared a list of the Polycystid Gregarines of the United States. He has made a care- ful examination of the species, and has established twelve new ones, which he carefully describes and figures, giving in each case the locality and the host. In a subsequent paper,§ Crawley continues his list of North American Polycystid Gregarines, and gives a description of two new genera and several new species. He also adds a note on the time required for a Gregarine cyst to mature, and gives a short account of the cysts of Acutispora macroc&phala. Tick Fever. || — J. F. Anderson confirms the observations of Wilson and Chowning, who discovered the presence of an intracorpuscular parasite in spotted or tick fever. It is not pigmented ; it shows amoeboid movements ; it is arranged in pairs, or occurs as a single pyriform or ovoid body. It stains with difficulty ; and is never found in large numbers. Cultivations were negative. -^ * Le Physiologiste Russe, iii. (1903) pp. 1-55. t Rep. and Proc. Belfast Nat. Hist, and Phil. Soc, 1902-3, pp. 47-50. t Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1903, pp. 41-5S (3 pis.). § Tom. cit., pp. 632-44 (1 pi.). || Bull. No. 14, Hygien. Lab. U.S.A., 1903, 50 pp. (3 pis.). ■» I< g a I • ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 69 BOTANY. GENERAL, Including the Anatomy and Physiology of Seed Plants. Cytology, including: Cell Contents. Nucleus of the Yeast-Plant.* — F. A. Janssens gives a review of the various observations made on this subject since the publication of his and Leblanc's paper on the cytology of yeast. The majority of recent observers are agreed that the yeast-cell possesses a definite cor- puscle, with the micro-chemical characteristics and the physiological properties of a true nucleus. A few others doubt the existence of a definite nucleus, and consider the cell to have the same structure as that of the bacteria. Others, again, hold an intermediate view, that the nucleus exists in a primitive state as a vacuole, containing granules of nuclein. Wager puts forward the view that the cells contain a nuclear apparatus rather than a true nucleus, consisting of a nucleolus (the nucleus of most authors) which resists peptic digestion and stains feebly ; and in young and vigorous cells a vacuole also, which contains granules often united in a network and resisting digestion with pepsin. It is clear, then, that most authors admit the existence of a nucleus in the yeast-cell, but there is considerable disagreement on the existence and significance of the vacuole. Janssens believes that the nucleolus always lies inside the vacuole when the latter is present ; its appearance by the side of the vacuole, as observed by Wager, he considers to be due to the process of fixation, which he has followed under the micro- scope. The author ranges himself on the side of those who believe in the existence of a true nucleus, since there is to be found in the yeast- cell, as in the cells of higher forms, an organised body which contains nuclein, and plays an important part both in ordinary division and in spore-formation. Recent observations also confirm the views put for- ward earlier by Janssens and Leblanc as to the importance of this body in fertilisation. The role of the nucleus in budding, in sporulation and in fertilisation, is discussed with reference to recent work. Micro-chemistry and Cytology of a Torula.f — -Janssens and Mertens have isolated a rose-coloured Torula from a deposit in beer, and investigated its structure and behaviour. Their most important observations are, that the colouring matter is carotin, that it is sensitive to light, and that its nucleus sometimes increases by a process of unequal division. When grown in reverse plate cultures, small masses of gelatin are projected on to the cover and form there images of the colonies ; this is brought about by a liquefaction of the gelatin and the formation of a certain quantity of gas. * La Cellule, xx. (1903) pp. 337-49. t Tom. cit., pp. 353-68 (2 pis.). 70 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Abnormal Nuclear Division.* — C. van Wisselingh has made a detailed study of the various methods of abnormal division of the nucleus to be found in Spirogyra when subjected to the action of various reagents, chiefly dilute chloral-hydrate solution. His general conclusion is that the various abnormal processes observed are not of a special nature or of the nature of amitosis, but are to be considered as processes of karyokinesis, though modified to a greater or less extent. The evidence for amitosis in plants is reviewed, and its unsatisfactory nature pointed out. Many of the observations are to be explained as modifications of karyokinesis. The author has modified somewhat his views on normal division ; he no longer believes that two of the six or twelve chromosomes are derived from the nucleolus (or nucleoli), but that a small portion only of the substance of these two special chromo- somes is derived from the nucleolus. Spermatogenesis of Hybrid Peas.j — W. A. Cannon, continuing his studies in plant hybrids, has investigated the nuclear development in pollen-formation in hybrid peas, namely, Fillbasket X Debarbieux and Express X Serpette. The hybrids investigated were of those of the second generation, and they showed variation after the Mendelian law. They matured their spores in exactly the same way as the pure ancestral forms ; the first mitosis being heterotypic, the second homotypic. The reduced number of chromosomes was seven, both in hybrids and pure forms, the somatic number being fourteen. In the anaphase, how- ever, of the last sporogenous division of both hybrids and of the pure form, Fillbasket, the chromosomes were found associated in pairs ; this condition is considered not to be the result of chance. It is clear that abnormalities and irregularities of nuclear division (which have been observed in some forms, probably in connection with their non-fertile nature) do not form the basis for the variation of these hybrids. The basis of variation is probably the same as that of variations in the pure forms. Structure and Development. Veg-etative. Stem of Sicyos angulata.J — Fr. Tondera gives an account of the morphology and the anatomy of the stem of this member of the order Cucurbitaceae. The stem is a sympodial structure, and the arrangement and course of the vascular bundles is clearly described and figured. The five-angled stem contains a mass of collenchymatous tissue in each of the angles, the well-developed parenchymatous ground-tissue is bounded by a sclerenchymatous ring, and contains an inner and an outer series of bicollateral bundles, the course of which through the internodes is carefully followed. Saprophytic Gentianaceae.§ — -N. Svedelius describes some points in the structure of species of Leiphamos and Voyria, from material * Bot. Zeit, xxxii. (1903) pp. 201-48 (3 pis.). t Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxx. (1903) pp. 519-43. % SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math.-naturwiss. CI. cxi. (1902) pp. 317-26 (2 pis.). § Bihang. K. Svensk. Vet.-Akad. Handl., xxviii. (1902) Afd. iii. No. 4, pp. 1-16 (11 figs, in text). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 71 collected by Dr. Landman on the Regnell Expedition to South America. His results serve to confirm or supplement those obtained by Karsten, Johow, and others. The two species examined were Leiphamos azurea and Voyria coerulea. He finds in the former a whorl of disc-like scales at the base of the sepals, similar to that already described in other species. In the anatomy of the roots, L. azurea approaches most nearly L. tenella, which represents the most reduced type of the genus. In fiis species, too, as Johow also found in the species which he studied, the fungal hyphas which form a well-marked mycorhiza in the root, occur also in the tissue of the stem penetrating to directly beneath the flower. In contrast with Johow's statement as to the absence of stomata from all leaf- and stem-organs in West Indian saprophytes, including species of Leiphamos, the author describes and figures these organs on the reduced leaves of L. azurea, and also of L. aphylla. In the case of Voyria coerulea an account is given of the stem- structure. No vascular bundles are present in the much-reduced scale-leaves, but stomata occur sparingly on the inner surface. In the structure and development of the ovules, this species differs from Leiphamos, in which Johow found the ovules erect and with no integu- ment. Here also occurs the phenomenon noted by Johow, that many ovules remain sterile, forming hair-structures like paraphyses. The . ovules in V. coerulea are anatropous and have a single integument, thus agreeing with those of other members of the order. As Leiphamos and Voyria show but little agreement in their ana- tomical structure, and also differences in seed-structure, pollen, etc., it is probable that the two genera are not so closely related as has some- times been supposed. Leiphamos would seem to be a remarkably reduced and isolated type, while Voyria shows more agreement with the Gentianacese in general. Structure of the Extrafloral Nectaries of Hevea. * — Aug. Da- guillon and H. Coupin describe the form and internal structure of the glands which occur in different species of this genus of Euphor- biaceae, at the top of the petiole on its upper face, near the origin of the three large leaflets. These glands, although used by systematists in the distinction of species, do not seem to have been studied anatomically. In Hevea brasilkiisis the glands, which vary from two to five in number, form a little wart, in the centre of which is a more or less circular depression, surrounded by a sort of cushion. The authors describe in detail the internal structure of the central depressed glandular area, the cushion and the rest of the gland, and draw special attention to two points : (1) the presence of a ring of sclerosed parenchymatous cells in the interior of the cushion ; and (2) the distribution and termination of the laticiferous cells in the parenchyma adjacent to the glandular surface and right among the cells of the secreting epidermis. Reproductive. Germination of Davidia.f— W. B. Hemsley describes the structure of the fruit and the germination of the seeds in this genus, which is a * Comptes Rendus, cxxxvii. (190:?) pp. 767-9. t Journ. Linn. Soc. xxxv. Bot. (190;?) pp. 556-9 (1 pi). 72 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO monotype, and one of the most remarkable of the endemic genera of Chinese trees. It was discovered more than thirty years ago by the Abbe David near Moupin, in the province of Szechuen, but a recent supply of fresh seeds has rendered possible the study of the germination. The fruit is drupe-like ; the hard bony endocarp intrudes between the six to ten one-seeded cells to the axis with which it unites. After the decay of the fleshy coat, the fruit opens by the separation of the upper portion (one-half to two-thirds) of the back of each carpel in the form of a valve or shutter. Usually only about half the number of the ovules are fertilised and develop, sometimes only one. The solitary pendulous seeds are not released by the falling away of the dorsal valves, but held fast until the seedling has reached a considerable development. The straight embryo has a pair of flat leafly cotyledons, and is imbedded in endosperm. After the dehiscence of the dorsal valves of the carpels, the radicles of as many seeds as are present in the fruit emerge simul- taneously, the cotyledons elongate rapidly, the axis of the plantlet is •carried out of the testa, and the cotyledons after absorbing the endo- sperm free themselves, and form the first green leaves of the plant. An •opposite pair of foliage-leaves is developed at right angles to the cotyle- dons, while the succeeding leaves are alternate. The writer suggests that in a cluster of seedlings, developing thus from one fruit, there is a greater chance of partial escape from phytophagous organisms than there is for solitary individuals. Another point of interest is the presence of buds in the axils of the cotyledons, which may serve to ensure the develop- ment of the plant if the plumule is injured or destroyed. Davidia is usually placed in the Cornaceae, next to Nyssa, a genus of Asiatic and North American trees, which it resembles in some particulars, but from which it differs greatly in appearance and floral structure. Synanthy in Lonicera.* — E. A. N. Arber gives a detailed account of the cases of synanthy which occur in the Xylosteum section of this genus. This, the largest of the three sections into which the genus has been divided, contains more than seventy species, which are mainly erect shrubs. It is widely distributed in the northern hemisphere, but its chief centre is eastern Asia ; several species are alpines in the mountains of southern and eastern Europe. Two different types of synanthy are represented. One, which is distinguished as true synanthy, is effected by the partial or complete fusion of the receptacular walls of the inferior ovaries or fruits, and the bracteoles play no part in its formation. Lonicera xylosteum, a doubtful British plant, is an example of an in- complete union ; L. alpigma may serve as the type of the somewhat more numerous cases in which the synanthy is complete, and where the resulting fruit is a false berry, the pericarp being formed from the walls of the two ovaries. In many species the pistils are enveloped by a bracteolar sheath, which as a rule plays no part in the formation of the fruit, but in Lonicera crrrulea a false synanthy is effected by the union of the two pistils in certain planes with the bracteolar sheath, the pistils themselves remaining quite free from one another. The fruit is a * Journ. Linn. Soc, xxxvi. Bot. (1903) pp. 463-74 (3 figs, in text). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 73 pseudocarp, forming a false berry in which the bracfceoles as well as the ovary-walls contribute to the formation of the pericarp. The author is unable to make a suggestion as to the special biological significance of the false berries of L. alpigena and L. cmrulea, beyond the possibility that the adaptations have some connection with the alpine conditions under which these species thrive. New Graft-Hybrid.* — L. Daniel describes a graft-hybrid which originated under the following circumstances from a grafted pear in the garden of the St. Vincent Institution at Rennes. The pears had been badly attacked with chermes, and to prolong their life had been severely pruned and cut down to within about 2 metres from the ground. M. Daniel followed carefully the results of this severe disturbance of the relation between the absorbing and transpiring members of the plant. In every case the grafts put out shoots which were for the most part more or less drooping. The fruit-buds flowered and bore fruit in the same year, yielding monstrous productions, the form and structure of which the author has already described {La Theorie des capacites fonctionnelles, Rennes, 1902). Hitherto only one of the stocks has developed shoots (a Coignassier, on which is grafted a William pear), but these are of special interest. Two, which are situated well below the cushion, preserve all the characters of the normal plant, but, at the level of the cushion, on a protuberance entirely covered by the cortex of the stock, are three other shoots, which in their size, direction, indumentum, number of lenticels, and leaf -characters are more or less intermediate between the stock and the graft. They represent a graft- hybrid in the same sense as those obtained by the writer in experimenting with herbaceous plants, or those which have since been recorded in woody plants. M. Daniel again points out that the absence of observa- tions on graft-hybrids in the Rosacese, although members of this order have been grafted from time immemorial and in large numbers, is due to the constant suppression of shoots on the stock. Lindmark, Gunnar — Om Adventiv Lbkbildning pi Stjalken hos Liiium can- didum. (On formation of adventitious bulbils on the stem of Liiium candidum.) [The author describes and figures a remarkably copious bulbil formation on the stem of this lily.] Bihang h. Svensh. Vet.-Ahad. Handl., xxviii. (190o) Afd. iii., No. 3, pp. 1-9 (1 pi.). Physiology. Nutrition and Growth. Photosynthesis.! — T. Bokorny, experimenting with Petroselinum sativum, shows that assimilation of carbon dioxide is checked in solu- tions containing 1 part of formaldehyde in 20,000, and even by 1 in 50,000. It is therefore impossible for appreciable amounts of formal- dehyde to accumulate in plants ; but there is nothing improbable in the assumption that this is immediately converted into carbohydrate. As regards reduction of carbon monoxide, the author points out that pro- * Comptes Eendus, cxxxvii. (1903) pp. 7G5-7. t Chem. Zeit, xxvii. (1903) pp. 525-7. See also Journ. Chem. Soc, lxxxiv. (1903) ii. p. 505. 74 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO duction of hydrogen has hitherto only been observed in connection with fermentation processes. He concludes that hydrogen carbonate is directly reduced to formaldehyde by the chlorophyll apparatus in presence of an adequate amount of light. L. Macchiati * claims to have established some new facts in support of his contention that photosynthesis takes place in extracts prepared from the green parts of plants, owing to the presence of a ferment. Having powdered the leaves of five species of plants last autumn, and stored the powder in dried sterilised flasks, he mixed these powders with distilled water last March and succeeded in obtaining an evolution of oxygen gas in varying quantities, when the temperature of the air rose to 15° C. A triangular discussion as to the validity of his con- tention is carried on between himself, G. Pollacci and A. Fiori in the same periodical. Synthesis of Proteids.f — E. Laurent and E. Marchal arrive at the following conclusions. Nitrogen in the form of ammonia is assimilated both by normal and by etiolated chlorophyllous plants, the process being more active in the former. Assimilation of nitrogen in the form of nitrates by green plants is, with some exceptions, far more intense in presence of light than in darkness. When nitrogen is assimilated in darkness, the necessary energy is derived from the consumption of carbo- hydrates. Whilst the "lower non-green plants can produce proteids in absence of light, the synthesis in higher chlorophyllous plants can take place only in the light. Deficiency of Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid and Potassium in Plant-Growth 4 — H. Wilfarth and G. Wimmer find that when nitrogen or phosphoric acid is deficient, growth is more or less restricted, but the composition of the dry matter is only affected when the deficiency is very great. When the phosphoric acid is present in insufficient quantity, the leaves become a dark green or bluish-green according to the amount of nitrogen present, or in extreme cases the leaves blacken, beginning from the edges. Very small amounts of potassium enable plants to grow normally for weeks or months, but when the potassium is used up photosynthesis ceases. Sugar-beet when grown with insufficient potas- sium readily decays, and the sugar is often changed, partially or entirely, into invert sugar. As in the case of the sugar-beet, the proportion of leaves in potatoes is much increased when potassium is deficient, but the yield and size of the tubers and the percentage of starch are reduced. The effect of want of potassium on the appearance of the leaves and plants is frequently very difficult to distinguish from that of fungi and insects. Influence of Mineral Food on Sex in Dioecious Plants.§ — E. Laurent has made a series of experiments, extending over seven years, on the effect of the nature of the mineral food of a plant on the sex of * Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital., 1903, pp. 196-S. t Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg , 1903, pp. 55-114. See also Journ. Cliem. Soc, lxxxiv. (1903) ii. p. 50G. X Journ. Landw., li. (1903) pp. 129-38. See also Journ. Cliera. Soc, lxxxiv. (1903) ii. pp. 500-7. § Comptes Rendus. exxxvii. (1903) pp. 689-92. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 75 its flowers ; the plants used were spinach, hemp, and Mercurialis annua. These have been treated with manures in which one of the following elements predominated : nitrogen, potash, phosphoric acid, chalk, and sodium chloride. In the hemp and Mercurialis no obvious influence on the number of male or female plants could be observed ; but in the case of spinach, especially the Dutch variety, the effect was a marked one. Two distinct effects were noticeable. In the first place, there was a direct effect on the sex of the plants observed ; in the second, the nutritive elements reacted on the sex of the embryos produced by these same plants. As regards direct action, an excess of nitrogenous manure or of chalk gives more male plants, while potash and phosphoric acid cause an increase in the number of the females. As regards the second effect, the seeds of plants cultivated with an excess of nitrogen produced fewer male plants, more female, and among the monoecious individuals a larger number of female flowers. On the contrary, an excess of potash, phosphoric acid, or chalk, predisposes the seeds to yield more male plants among the dioecious individuals, and more male flowers among the monoecious individuals. In two years the descendants of the monoecious plants of the Dutch spinach were tabulated. Seeds were taken from a plant, of which the main axis bore female flowers, while on the branches the male flowers were more numerous. In the first year (1899), 100 large seeds gave 72 plants comprising 46 males, 13 monoecious and 13 females; 100 small seeds of the same origin gave 21 plants, of which 17 were males, 2 monoecious and 2 females. In the second year (1900), 200 seeds of medium size gave 98 male plants, 23 female and 29 monoecious ; and among the latter there was only one in which female flowers preponderated. These results, asso- ciated with the general preponderance of male over female flowers in Dutch spinach, suggest that the monoecious plants are males, in which a certain number of flowers have become female. Chemical Changes. Experiments on Yeast Extract.* — J. Meisenheimer finds that even when yeast extract is considerably diluted (1 in 25) it still has strong fermentative properties. With water alone as the diluent, the activity is largely destroyed ; dilution with 10 p.c. glycerol solution, or with 10 p.c. egg-albumin solution, does not destroy the activity. Impure zymase may be precipitated from the extract by the addition of large amounts of acetone (10 to 1), and the product is similar in all respects to that obtained by the use of ether and alcohol. Trommsdorff's state- ment that the proteids undergo a change during extraction from the yeast is not correct, as the dry residue gives the same reaction with Gram's reagent as the yeast itself. Small amounts of acetic and lactic acids are formed during the fermentation of sugar solutions with the extract freed from yeast cells. Co-efficient of Respiration of Yeasts.f — E. Wosnessensky and E. Elisseef give the tabulated results of experiments with different * Zeit. Physiol. Chem., xxxvii. (1903) pp. 518-26. See also Journ. Chem. Soc., lxxxiv. (1903) i. p. 591. t Centralbl. Bakt., x. (1903) pp. 629-36 (1 tig). 76 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO races of yeasts cultivated on nitrogenous media. Their intention was to test whether Pasteur's dictum, that " Fermentation is life without oxygen," would hold good for other forms than Saccharomyces cerevisice. They experimented with this yeast, and also with 8. Ludwigii and 8. Fombe. The authors find that the co-efficient of respiration depends on the kind of yeast under culture, and also on the substratum ; they find also that fermentation takes place with full aeration, and they have no doubt that alcoholic fermentation is a zymase fermentation. They got a very small co-efficient from S. Pombe cultivated on ammonium phosphate, which indicated the absence of alcoholic fermentation. Micro-chemical Researches on some Glucosides and some Vege- table Tannins.* — A. Goris gives a resume of previous work, dealing with the question of the localisation in the cells of the active principles found in plants. He then describes the results of his investigations on the a3sculin and tannin in the horse-chestnut and in Pavia rubra. iEsculin is characterised by the intense blue fluorescence of its watery solution, its solubility in acetic acid and ethyl-acetate, and its intense blood-red coloration after passing successively into concentrated nitric acid and pure ammonia (Sonnenschein's reaction). After discussing the composition, chemical constitution and affinities of resculin, the author studies its localisation in the plant-tissues by means of Sonnen- schein's reaction. He finds that it is especially localised in the epidermis, often also in the sub-epidermal layer, in the endodermis, and in a peri- pheral layer of the pith ; but it also occurs abundantly, though in varying quantity, in isolated cells of the parenchyma of the cortex and pith, in the pericycle and the medullary rays, in the wood and paren- chyma, and the old bast parenchyma. It is absent from the meristem and from dead tissues, the young bast tissue, the wood-vessels, the root- hairs and the embryo. Its formation apparently has no direct relation to the action of light ; it appears in seedlings from seeds germinating in the dark as well as in the light, and bears no relation to the chlorophyll-containing cells, but brightly illuminated aerial organs are the richest in the gluco- side. It does not seem to be a reserve-substance, since it makes its appearance in germination as an early result of the utilisation of the reserves in the embryo. However, in the autumn it partly disappears from the leaves, and is found in the bast of the branches, as if it were being carried towards the persistent parts of the plant. The chestnut also contains a tannin (ajsculitannic acid) which M. Goris finds in the same organs and in the same cells as tesculin. Moreover, since the latter, although insoluble in alcohol, disappears from twigs when treated with alcohol, and since the alcohol thus obtained yields under proper treatment a quantity of sesculin, the author concludes that the glucoside occurs in the cells, in combination with the tannin, as a tanno-glucoside. By similar or analogous methods the author has studied the fustin in Rhus Cotinus, the fraxin in the Ash, the daphnin in Daphne alpina, * Goris, Alb. Eecherches miiToehemiqui s sur quelques glucosides et quelques tanins ve'getaux. Thesis. Joanin, Paris. 190:!. Bee alio Bot. Centralhl., xeiii. (1903) pp. 261-3. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 77 the salicin in Salix alba, and the cafe in in Thea sinensis and Cola acuminata. All of these glucosides or special compounds seem analogous to sesculin, and, with the exception of daphnin, occur in the cells in com- position with a tannic acid ; and M. Goris thinks it probable that many of the compounds, both glucosides and alkaloids, occur in the plant totally or partially combined with a body having the reactions of tannin. It is these tanno-glucosides or tanno-alkaloids, very soluble in water and alcohol, but also very unstable, which in the majority of cases are the chief active principle in certain medicinal plants. Cyanogenesis in Plants.* — Wyndham R. Dunstan and T. A. Henry have made a further contribution to this aspect of plant physiology, viz. the isolation of Phaseolunatin, the cyanogenetic glucoside of Phaseolus lunatus, an annual, widely cultivated in the tropics where the edible bean is used as a vegetable. When a few beans are powdered and moistened with cold water, the odour of hydrocyanic acid is perceptible in a few minutes, but if boiling water is used, and the vessel is imme- diately closed and allowed to cool, no prussic acid odour is perceptible, and no evidence of its production can be obtained by the usual tests. These observations indicate that the production of the acid is connected with the action of an enzyme. The glucoside was isolated from an alcoholic extract of the powdered beans, as spreading rosettes of colour- less needles from \ in. to 1 in. long, which melt at 141° C. Its formula was determined as C ]0 H n O 6 N, by combustions of specially purified material dried at 100° C, and the correctness of the formula was con- firmed by estimations of the dextrose produced on hydrolysis. The alkaline hydrolysis proves that phaseolunatin is the dextrose ether of acetone cyanhydrin. The hydrolytic enzyme of Phaseolus lunatus was isolated as an amorphous white powder, almost completely soluble in water ; it readily hydrolyses amygdalin, salicin, and phaseolunatin. As the latter is also hydrolysed by the emulsin of sweet almonds, it is probable that the enzyme of Phaseolus lunatin is emulsin. The occur- rence in the plant, apparently throughout its life, of a cyanogenetic glucoside, together with the enzyme appropriate for its hydrolysis, seems to strengthen the view, previously expressed by the authors, that these glucosides must play some definite part in the metabolism of plants. General. Australian Fossil Botany.f — R. Etheridge gives a description of more complete specimens than have hitherto been obtained from the Leigh Creek coal measures, South Australia, of Thinnfeldia odonto- pteroides, and points out that the nervation is more complex than in the typical form of the species, and that at least three varieties of nervation have been included in Thinnfeldia : suggesting those of the three genera, Thinnfeldia, Odontopteris and Lescuropteris. J. Shirley \ describes several new species, and gives notes on others, * Proc. Roy. Soc, Lxxii. (1903) pp. 2S5-94. t Contributions to the Palaeontology of South Australia, 1902, No. 12, p. 2(1 pi.). % Geolog. Survey, Queensland, Bull. No. 18 (1902) pp. 1-16 (11 pis.). 78 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO from various Queensland localities. From the Permo-carboniferous of Dawson river he records several species of Sphenopteris and Glossopteris, and describes a new seed, Cycadospermum Dawsoni. It is suggested that Sphenopteris lolifolia, S. alata, S. flexuosa and S. crebra represent different parts or growth-stages of the same frond, which a discovery of the fertile leaves places in the genus Mertensia. Taxoxylon Philpii is a new species from the Ipswich beds, and represents the first taxaceous fossil wood from Queensland. Plant-Life in the Sihlthal at Einsiedeln.* — Max Duggeli gives an account of the geographical position, the geology, climatology and flora of this high valley, and the plant-associations which it comprises. The district, which has an area of 12 kilometres, is soon to be sub- merged to form a reservoir in connection with some electric works. Under the heading vegetation, the author gives a list of about 150 cultivated plants, followed by a list of those growing wild. The latter comprise nearly 200 species of fresh-water algge, 50 fungi, 75 lichens, 130 mosses, 25 vascular cryptogams, and 560 seed-plants. In his description of the cacology of the valley the author distinguishes the following formations : — (a) forest ; (b) bush-vegetation ; (c) schutt- fluren ; (d) meadow-formation (the most important), and the various types comprising it ; (e) water-vegetation, both of flowing and stagnant water, including the plankton ; and (/) culture-formation. The text is accompanied by several sectional diagrams, showing the characteristic plants at the different levels in several of the formations. Another feature of interest is the tabulation which the author gives of the plant- remains found in the peat at various stations in the valley, compiled from a study of numerous sections. There is also a good general map of the district. Swedish Saxifrages.f — G. Lindmark gives a somewhat detailed account of the vegetative and floral morphology of the Swedish species of Saxijraga. A short general account containing an organographic key to the species is followed by a special portion, comprising for each species an account of the germination of the seed, the development of the seedling, and the vegetative and floral characters of the adult plant. The paper is well illustrated by five plates ; four of these are double- page. Chinese Cyperaceae.J — C. B. Clarke has elaborated this order for Messrs. Forbes' and Hemsley's Enumeration of the Plants of China. The order is well represented in the Chinese flora. Mr. Clarke's enumeration includes a number of new species, especially in the genus Carex, which is by far the largest. There are also various critical notes of some general interest. Teratology.§ — K. Schilberszky describes and figures the following examples of teratology : twin-bulbs in an onion (Allium Cepa), the * Vierteljahrschrift der Naturforschend. Gescllsch. in Zurich, xlviii. (1903) pp. 49-270 (with map and tigs, in text). t Bihang K. Svensk. Vet -Akad. Handl., xxviii. Afd. iii. No. 2 (1902) pp. 1-84 (5 pis.). % Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot., xxxvi. (1903) pp. 217-96. § Novenytai Kijzlemenyek, Fachbl. bol. Sekt. kgl. ungar. Naturw. Geeellscli. Budapest, ii. (1903) pp. 76-89 (7 fie;s.). See also Bot. Centralbl., xciii. (1903) p. 260. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 79 formation of foliage-leaves on the tendrils of the vine, and a forked flower-spike in Plantago lanceolata var. altissima. 0. V. Wennersten * describes, with illustrative figures, examples of floral and also foliar teratology in specimens of the walnut grown in Gothland. Abech avaleta, J. — Contribucion al conccimento de la Vegetacion del Uruguay. (Contribution to our knowledge of the vegetation of Uruguay.) [Includes mainly grasses, with descriptions of new species of Stipa and Aristida.'] Anales Mus. Nation. Montevideo, iv. (1903) pp. 61-86 (7 pis.). „ „ Ncmina Vernacularia. (A list of vernacular names of the Uruguay flora.) Anales Mus. Nation, Montevideo, iv. (1903) pp. 132-52. Goldschmidt-Geisa, M. — Die flora des Rhongebirges III. (The flora of the Rhongebirg.) [Comprises the grasses, with a few additions to the two previous parts.] Verhandl. Phys.-Med. Ges. Wurzburg, N.F. xxxv. (1903) pp. 313-35. Johansson, K. — Archieracium-Floraninom Dilarnes Siluromrade I Siljanstrakten. [A long paper on Hieracia, with notes on localities, etc., of previously known species, and very full descriptions (in Latin) of many new ones.] Bihang K. S ensk. Vet.-Akad. Handl., xxviii. (1902) Afd. iii. No. 7 (1902) pp. 1-156 (12 double plates). Korbhinsky, S. — On the origin of the Peach. (Russian.) Bull. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Pe'tersb., 8er. 5, xi v. (1901) pp. 77-83. „ On the original form of the Common Almond and allied species. Bull. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. i'e*ers6.,ser.5,xiv.(1901)pp. 85-94. Nathorst, A. G. — Svenska Vaxtnamn. (Swedish plant-names.) Bihang K. Svensk. Vet.-Akad. Eandl., xxviii. (1902) Afd. iii. No. 9 pp. 1-72. Sargent, C. S. — Recently recognised species of Crataegus in Eastern Canada and New England, IV. and V. [Several new species are described in the two groups Coccinese and Tomentosx.~] Rhodora, v. (1903) pp. 159-68, 182-7. CRYPTOGAMS. Pteridophyta. Isoetes.f — G. H. Shull shows in a map the exact distribution of Isoetes saccharata along the shores of the tributaries of Chesapeake bay, and discusses various problems presented by it. It is confined to Chesa- peake bay, and occurs but locally, on tidal beaches, requiring fresh or slightly brackish water, and soil firm enough to resist wave-action. It does not thrive where competition with other plants is great. Its dis- persal is effected probably by water-currents, not by winds or birds. A nearly related species, I. riparia, is similarly confined to the neigh- bouring Delaware bay. There are grounds for concluding that the former species is polymorphic, and for supposing that /. riparia may prove to be an extreme form of it, some intermediate varieties being untenable. The curious distribution finds an explanation in the geo- logical alteration of the coast-line by upheaval and subsidence. * Bihang. K. Svensk. Vet.-Akad. Hand!., xxviii. (1902) pp. 1-12 (12 figs, in (ext). t Bot. Gazette, xxxvi. (1903) pp. 187-202 (with map). 80 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Investigations on Fern-Prothallia.* — A. Jakowatz has studied the development of the prothallium in several members of Polypodiaceae T and finds remarkable differences in the early stages of development and their conversion into the later flat expanded form. It is, however, impossible to say whether these differences are characteristic of the various species or genera. In some species the developmental course in these stages follows a definite scheme ; in others, different types of development are observed apparently without reference to external conditions. There is, however, a common law governing the first stages of development, which in all the forms investigated begins with a thread-like stage ; the growth of this becomes closed, while the flat pro- thallial growth originates from an apical cell appearing laterally on the filiform rudiment. Often the formation of a branch coincides with the formation of this cell, which then comes to stand in the axil of the branch. The further development of the pro thallial surface depends on the well-known segmentation of the apical cell. The segments, always the earliest, show a limited growth and often conclude with a papilliform terminal cell. In the filiform rudiment, the lateral origin of the later flat structure, and the formation of segments with limited growth, the ferns investi- gated show a remarkable homology with the development of the mosses. We may regard the thread-like rudiment as a protonema stage, and the papilla-like ends of the segments as structures homologous with the leaf -ends of the Muscineae. Tropical American Ferns. f — C. A. M. Lindman gives an account of the ferns collected by him during the first Regnell Expedition (1892-4) in Brazil and Paraguay, and of those collected by Regnell, Mosen and others, thirty to fifty years ago. In all he records 209, sixteen of which, with three varieties and nine forms, are new. Having examined Swartz's types at Stockholm, he has revived several old species which had been misunderstood or quite forgotten. This has involved change of nomenclature and synonymy. He has followed the general lines of Hooker's Synopsis Filicum. Finding the old descrip- tions too elastic and indefinite, he pleads that they be made more exact, and hence more helpful to collectors in enabling them to appreciate rare species, which run the risk of being disregarded as mere forms of common species too loosely defined. Trichomanes (sect. Didymoglossum)4 — C. A. M. Lindman publishes critical notes on the American species of Didymoglossum Desv., a section of the genus Trichomanes. Having studied Swartz's little-known types in the Stockholm Museum, he is able to correct the erroneous con- ceptions which Hooker, Greville, and others, formed of the species T. apodum, muscoides, reptans, quercifolkim, etc., and to amend the con- fusion that has consequently arisen. He has carefully re-described the original specimens, and, as words are insufficient to give an accurate idea of such difficult plants, he has found it indispensable to add a number of camera-lucida drawings to prevent future misunderstanding. * SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math.-naturwiss. CI. ex. (1901) pp. 479-505(7 pis.)- t Arkiv. for Botanik. Stockholm, i. (1903) pp. 187-275 (8 pis.). j Tom. cit., pp. 7-56 (31 rigs, in text). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 81 He gives descriptions of thirteen species in all, and three of these are new species collected in South America. Asplenium Ruta-muraria.* — V. H. Christ has studied the varieties and allies of this well-marked but most variable species, and publisher a systematic account of the various forms grouped in accordance with his views, with descriptions and critical notes and figures. He arranges them in four sections — rhomboidea, ellipsoidw, lanceolate/,, cuneata — ■ according to the ultimate segments of their leaves. Passing on to the consideration of the abnormal forms, exotic forms and allies of A. Ruta- muraria, he concludes with a synoptic key to the whole group. Linnaeus's System of Ferns.f — L. M. Underwood criticises Linnaeus's treatment of the ferns, especially those of America, in the Species Plantar urn (1753), and shows that he was not the originator of binominal nomenclature. His conception of the genera was, with a few exceptions, far different from those of the present day. His fern- system was crude even for the time at which it was published, as is evidenced by the unnatural groupings under Osmunda, Acrostichum, and Polypodium. The greater number of his species were compiled from books and plates. His herbarium is of comparatively little value for the determination of his types. A small part only are represented by specimens, often scrappy — mere tips of leaves, often sterile. His types must very largely depend on the plates and descriptions of ea lier writers quoted by him. Bars alt, E. — Nota sul Polypodium vulgare L. (Note on Poh/podiam vulgarelj.) [Describes a waxy coating excreted by the exposed rhizoinu to protect itself fiom desiccation in hot climates.] Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital, 1903, pp. 119-21. Lyon, F. M. — Two megasporangia in Selaginella. [Occurrence of two normal megasporangia on one sporophyll in Selaginella ritpestris.] Bot. Gazette, xxxvi. (1903) p. 30S (fig. in text;. Bryophyta. Fossil British Mosses.:}: — 0. Reid gives a list of ten mosses ob- tained from a glacial fresh-water stratum, reached at a depth of GO feet, during the sinking of a well at Mundesley in Norfolk. They were identified by H. N. Dixon, who reports that tne bulk of the deposit consisted of Hypnum turyesce/is, a boreal moss which was not known to grow in the British Isles, but was discovered on Ben Lavvers in July 1902. With it were H. capillifolium and H. Richardsoni, neither of which are members of the existing British flora. A variety of H. polygamum occurred in some quantity. North American Species of Leskea.§ — G. N. Best publishes a revision of Leskea, a genus now much restricted as compared with its earlier dimensions. The name Leskea may have to be transferred if the strictest rules of nomenclature are applied to it. Accepting L. poly- carpa as the type of the genus, he ranges the species under two sub- * Hedwigia, xlii. (1903) pp. 153-77 (4 pis.). t Tonvya, id. (19u:s) pp. 145-50. % Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soc, vii. (1902; pp. 290-S. § Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxx. (1903) pp. 463-82 (2 pis.). Feb. 17th, 1904 G 82 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO genera, EnJesTcea and Hetcroleskea, each containing five species, the former with papillose leaves, the latter with smooth. He gives careful descriptions of the species and varieties, with critical notes, synonymy and good figures. The novelties are two species and four varieties. Bryology of the Tuscan Archipelago.* — A. Beguinot in the winter of 1897-8 studied the Muscinese of the Tuscan archipelago, and gives lists for the islands as follows : Giannutri, 27 mosses, 9 hepatics ; Giglio, 108 mosses, 45 hepatics ; Montecristo, 49 mosses, 23 hepatics ; Pianosa, 32 mosses, 17 hepatics ; Elba, 182 mosses, 54 hepatics ; Capraia„ 83 mosses, 33 hepatics ; Gorgona, 59 mosses, 13 hepatics. The total for the archipelago is 17G species of mosses and Gl species of hepatics- The geographical distribution of the mosses is worked out at con- siderable length, and the species are divided into four groups : (1) ten species which are cosmopolitan ; (2) eighty-three which are not cosmo- politan, but widely distributed in and outside Europe ; (3) fifty-four which are widely distributed in southern and middle Europe and in other continents ; (4) twenty-eight more or less widely distributed in southern (and western) Europe and outside the continent. The actual distribution is detailed for each species. The comparative floras of various countries and regions, and past and present geological conditions, climate, etc., are fully discussed ; also the conditions of growth required by the species themselves. An attempt is made to explain the floras, of the Tuscan islands in terms of these factors. The geographical dis- tribution of the hepatics is not discussed owing to lack of satisfactory data for comparison. The paper ends with a tabulated list of the species, and varieties that constitute the bryological flora of the archipelago. European Mosses in the Himalayas.f — E. Levier calls attention to the want of a work of reference giving the geographical distribution and zones of altitude of the mosses of the world : and, as a contribu- tion towards such a work, he has compiled from his carefully labelled herbarium a catalogue of 1G2 European mosses which occur in the Himalayas, with their exact localities and altitudes in the latter region. These mosses were collected by J. F. Duthie and his assistants, and determined by V. F. Brotherus. North American Mosses. $ — E. G. Britton publishes some notes on Splachnum, especially with reference to the curious umbrella-shaped apo- physis of the sporophyte of *S'. rubrum and S. luteum. J.M. Holzinger§ reports on some well preserved fossil mosses from Iowa, extracted from a deposit five to ten thousand years old — Hypnum fluitans, H. re- volvens, and //. Richardsoni. A. J. Grout || gives the results of some exhaustive examinations of the colonies of mosses occurring in selected areas of a few square feet ; for example, an old pear tree, an old log in a deep moist wood, a sandy field, a road cutting, an old stone wall. To his surprise, these yielded several species which he had never gathered before. R. S. Williams If publishes a list of 382 mosses gathered by himself in the State of Montana, between 188G and 1897. Three new * Nuov. Giorn. Bot. Ital., x. (1903) pp. 285-332, 423-530. t Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital., 1903, pp. 105-14. % Bryolo-ist, vi. (1903) pp. 91-3 (1 pi.). § Tom. oit.. pn. 93-4. ' || Tom. cit , pp. 94-6. ^ Lull. New Yoik Pot. GarcUn, ii. (1903) pp. 351-80 (6 pis.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 83 species are described, and these and three other rare species are figured in detail. Some critical notes are appended to the more difficult species. R. S. Williams * gives a list of 230 mosses collected by him in the Yukon territory during a residence of more than a year (1898-9). A new genus with one new species, Bryobrittonia pellucida, closely related to Tortula and Desmatodon, is established ; and ten other new species are described. Numerous critical notes are interspersed. B. M. Britton f records the first discovery of the rare Buxbaumia indusiata in New England. It occurred in quantity on a rotten log of poplar at Surry, New Hampshire. It is usually found as a saprophyte on decayed coni- ferous logs. It is known from four other localities in the United States. J. F. Collins % publishes some critical and distributional notes on Hypnum Richardsoni, Anacamptodon splachnoides, Catoscopium nigritum, and other mosses in connection with the New England flora. South American Mosses.§ — P. Dusen gives an account of the Sphagnacea? and Andrea3acea3 collected by himself and by 0. Norden- skjold and F. W. Neger in the neighbourhood of the Straits of Magellan, in west Patagonia and south Chili, with descriptions and figures of seven new species and two new varieties, and critical notes as to their affinities. The Sphagnaceae attain their highest development in the regions of the deciduous and evergreen forests ; of the commoner forms two varieties of S. medium form bogs, and a variety of & fimbriatum occurs in large loose cushions in open country. Germination of Liver-worts. || — E. Lampa publishes some well illustrated studies on the germination of Preissia, Reboulia, Plagio- chasma, FegateUa, Fossombronia and Anthoceros from their spores, and considers that the development of the sexual generation can be divided into several stages. The germ-tube is a protonema usually of limited growth. The rudiment of the stem arises from segmentation of the terminal cell, the apical cell arising from the third segment, the plan of this process resembling that of moss-gemma3. The embryo is highly sensitive to the direction and intensity of the incident light. Leaves do not appear in Anthoceros, and are more or less rudimentary in Marchantiacese. In FegateUa, though absent in the rudimentary stage,, they appear later as under-leaves. Three rows of well-developed leaves are produced in the vertically growing Haplomitrium. They are present in other Jungermanniaceas. Anthoceros holds a leading position in virtue of its highly developed asexual generation, though the sexual generation appears very reduced as compared with the Jungermanniaceae, the Marchantiacea3 occupying an intermediate position. In the rudi- ment of the stem are signs of reduction which approach the typical development of the moss-stem. Development of Riella.1T— M. P. Porsild gives the results of his investigations of this aquatic genus. Starting with a historical and geographical survey of the species, he supplies a comparative table of * Bull. New York Bot. Garden, ii. (1903) pp. 105-48 (10 pis.), f Bhodora, v. (1903) pp. 257-S. \ Tom. cit., pp. 199-201. § Arkiv. lor Botanik. Stockholm, i. (1903) pp. 441-65 (11 pis.). I| SB. Akad. Wiss. Wien, cxi. (1902) pp. 477-89 (5 pis). If Flora, xcii. (1903) pp. 431-^6 (8 figs, in text). G 2 84 SUMMARY OF CUBKENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO the spore-measurements, calling attention to the vitality and floating- capacity of the spores, which for germination require good light ; in cultivating them he succeeded best by employing their native mud, and he noticed that the fronds arranged themselves parallel to the incident light. He describes the first stages of development, in which he could find no trace of an apical cell. Gemmre he found in the Central Asiatic E. Paulsenii ; these rise to the surface, and float until their stores of fat are used up in growth. As the result of germination of spores, gemmae, etc., a primordial lobe (protonema) is produced, the growth of which ceases at the apex, and a meristematic growing-point is formed near the base at one or both edges, which as it develops pushes aside the primordial lobe and forms on one side the stem and leaves, and on the other the dorsal wing and reproductive organs. In species of vertical habit, the stem and dorsal wing are from the first vertical. The growing point is thus intercalary and meristematic. As a general rule there is no apical cell, even up to a late stage ; sometimes, however, in strongly developed plants of the larger species, a wedge-shaped apical cell occurs at the point of junction of stem and wing, and throws off segments upwards to the wing and downwards to the stem, but only the wing- segments can be recognised for any length of time. The normal absence of an apical cell indicates the primitive character of the genus. The oil-bodies situated along the margin of the frond possibly serve to protect the plant from being eaten by animals. No fresh details as to the reproductive organs were observed, but in the sporogonium some of the cells which fail to become spore-mother-cells persist as stores of starch. As to the E. Jhelkophylla, the beautiful helicoid growth figured in the Flore (V Alger ie is no exaggeration, and may be a result of growth in subdued light in deep w 7 ater (Goebel) ; and the tufts of rhizoids shown as springing from knots at the base of the stem are germinations from spores in semi-decayed sporangia. E. Parisii, a floating species, is peculiar in its habit. Riella capensis sp. n.* — F. Cavers describes and figures this new species, obtained from dried mud, which had been gathered from a pond at Port Elizabeth for the sake of the Crustacea contained in it, and sent to the Owen's College, Manchester, for cultivation in an aquarium. The plant soon made its appearance, and in three months' time was found to be in a fruiting state. It is allied to /.'. helieophylla, but sufficiently distinct. The author gives full details as to its habit. Petalophyllum Ralfsii.| — F. Cavers gives a full description of this very rare hepatic, wdiich occurs sparingly in patches of Pallavkinia on Coatham Marshes, Yorkshire. It has been gathered only in five British and one Italian locality, and always in damp sandy places near the sea. It may prove to be identical with the Algerian Fossombronia corbulce- formis. The author describes in detail and figures the structure of the gametophyte, and calls attention to the marked occurrence of mycorhiza in the ventral zone of the thallus, and to the formation of tubers much resembling those described in the Californian Geothallus tnberoxus. '& * Etev. Brvol , xsx. (1903) pp. 81-4 (1 pi.). f The Xatuialist, 11)03, pp. 327-34 (li-s. in text). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 85 The sexual organs and sporogonium agree closely with those of Fos- sombronia. Yukon Hepatics.* — M. A. Howe gives a list of 24 hepatics, col- lected by R. S. Williams in the Yukon territory in 1898-9. It contains one new species, Scapania imbrkata, one species new to North America, five new to Alaska, and two or three of great rarity. A it nell, H. W. — Martinellia calcicola Arnell et Persson sp. nov. [Description of a new Swedish hepatic] Rev. Bryol. xxx. (1903) pp. 97-8. Bagnall, J. E. — The Mosses and Hepaticae of Worcestershire. [List of 283 mosses and 65 hepatics, with numerous varieties.] Journ. ofBot., xli. (1903) pp. 360-71, 388-97. Bar sal i, E. — Una breve escursione al Monte Argentario. (A short trip to Monte Aigentnrio.) [Contains a list of 29 additions to the local moss-flora, six of which have never before been recorded for the Tuscan archipelago.] Bull. Soc. Rot. Ilal, 1903, pp. 149-52. Bliss, M. C. — The occurrence of two venters in the archegonium of Polytrichum juniperinum. [The egg-cell occupying the upper venter represents the first neck-canal-cell.] But. Gazette, xxxvi. (1903) pp. 141-2 (fig. iu text). Bomansson, J. 0.— Brya nova. [Descriptions of ten new species of Bryum collected in Finland.] Rev. Bryol. xxx. (1903) pp. 85-89, 98-100. Culm ann, P. — Notes bryologiques snrlesflores du canton de Zurich etdes environs de Paris. (Bryological notes on the floras of Canton Zurich and of the vicinity of Pans ) [Annotated list of 27 hepatics and 10 mosses from near Zurich, and five from a suburb of Paiis.] Rev. Bryol, xxx. (1903) pp. 89-92. Jensen, C. — Fire for Norge nye Sphagnum- Arter. (Four species of Sphagnum new to Norway.) h'yt. Magazinfor Naturvidenslc, xl. (190:5) pp. 119-21. Lett, H. W. — Some Mosses and Hepatics of South Donegal. [List of 1 15 mosses and 73 hepatics gathered in two days on Slievo League, a rich locality.) Journ. of Bot., xli. (1903) pp. 356-9. L ill ie, D.— Anew British Hepatic. [Describes Jungermannia Kaurini Liurpr., and its first discovery in Britain, at Caithness.] Journ. of Bot., xli. (1903) pp. 363-4. Macvicab, Symers M. — Anthoceros dichotomus in Britain. [Contains a description of this Mediterranean plant and of its first finding in Britain. The species is remarkable for its tubers.] Journ. of Bot., xli. (1903) pp 347-8. Paris, E. G. — Muscinees de Madagascar (4° article). [Eighteen mosses, three described as new, and two new hepatics undescribed. _ Rev. Bryol., xxx. (1903) pp. 93-5. „ „ Muscinees de l'Afrique occidentale francaise. [List of 20 mosses and one hepatic from French West Africa, with descrip- tions of aeven new species.] Rev. Bryol., xxx. (1903) pp. 101-4. Podpera, J. — Miscellen zur Kenntnis der Europaischen Arten der Gattung Bryum. (Additions to our knowledge of the European species of the genus Bryum.) [Contains descriptions of three new Sardinian species and three new varieties, together with notes on a number of critical forms.] Beth. z. Bot. Centralbl. xv. (1903) pp. 4S3-92. Roth, G. — Die Europaischen Laubmoose. [Gives descriptions and fia;ure-i of all the mosses of Europe.] Leipzig, Engelmann, 1903, i. pp. 129-381 ; tabb. viii.-xxvi., xlix. * Bull. New York Bot. Garden, ii. (1901) pp. 101-5 (1 pi.). 8G SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Sebille, E. — Nouvelles observations sur Gastero^rimmia poecilostoma (Cardot et Sebille). [Description of tlio male plant, and distribution of this moss-species in Dauphine.j Rev. Bryol , xxx. (1903) pp. 105-0. The riot, J. — Brachythecium populeum (Hedw.) Br. Eur. var Levieri, var. nov. [Description of a moss gathered at Uormio.] Bull. Soc. But. Ital, 1903, p. 220. Thallophyta. Algae. Polymorphism of Algse.* — A. Hansgirg adds a final note to his work on this subject, pointing out the inevitable necessity for a thorough reform in the systematic classification of algae, and maintains that the study of " pure cultures " of algae, advocated by Klebs as a necessary preliminary to such reform, will only lead to error. He gives a list of papers bearing on this subject, which have appeared since the publication of his paper, ' On the Polymorphism of Alga?,' in 1893. Fossil Algae.f — P. Fliche records some additions to the genera of fossil algae, which, from their resemblance to modern genera, he names Chordites, Lomentarites, and Cystoseirites Sternb. (emend.). Each is represented by a single species. Lomentarites was found in the Gres Vigarre, at Merviller-Vacqueville, the other in the Muschelk.-superieure, at Chauffontaine and Sainte-Anne, near Luneville. They were all very abundantly represented. Four other species from the Muschelkalk have been named Algae ites, since the author cannot with certainty place them near any existing genus, though he has no doubt as to their algal nature. B. Renault publishes a note on the algae which form " Boghead," in which he states that this formation in the northern hemisphere is characterised by the presence of Pila ; Reinsehia occurs everywhere in the southern hemisphere ; Thylax britannicus is the principal constituent of British Boghead, and Cladiscothallus that of the Moscow beds. Every important stratum can be recognised by the algae of which it is formed. Algae in Public Water-supplies.:}:— G.T.Moore reports on the con- tamination of reservoirs and cress-beds by fresh-water algae. Spirogyra uives considerable trouble in a mechanical way by smothering the young water-cress plants, and it also forms a thick heavy mat over the surface of the water, thus preventing the growth of even the older plants. The Schizophyceae are very commonly the cause of pollution in drinking- water, especially the genera Olathrocystis, Anabana which produces a polluting oil, and Oscillatoria. Diatomaceae, notably the genus Aste- rionella, play a prominent part in the pollution of water, as also members of the group Syngeneticeae. The author mentions as methods of pre- vention of such pollution : the covering over of reservoirs, since light is favourable to algal growth ; the keeping of both source of supply and reservoir as free as possible from organic matter ; and the aeration of water by pumping, fountains, or some sort of spraying apparatus. The * Beibl. Bot. Jahrb. xxxii. No. 72 (1903) pp. 1-3. t Comptes Rendiis, exxxvi. (1903) pp. 827-9, 1340-3 (6 figs.). t Year Book Dept. Agricult. U.S.A. (1902) pp. 175-80. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 87 last method is, however, beneficial rather than harmful to certain forms of polluting algae, and may, therefore, do more harm than good. A new remedy is being tried, and has so far proved successful ; but the author waits for the result of further trials before detailing the process. This pollution by algas renders water extremely unpleasant, though not actually poisonous. Thames Plankton.* — F. E. Fritsch continues his investigations on this subject, and compares his results with those of Schroder and Brunn- thaler on the Oder and Danube respectively. In the Thames there is a well-marked living plankton all the year round, while in the two continental rivers there is an almost entire absence of plankton in the winter. A table is given showing the periodicity of Thames plankton, which may be summarised thus : mixed plankton — Melosira — Synedra — mixed plankton. Aster ionella forms a minor phase during the winter months. The periodic distribution of forms is not by any means the same as that of the Oder or the Danube, but the author considers that the periodicity of the Thames plankton may vary in different portions of the river's course. The plankton of four backwaters was also examined, namely, Molesey, Sunbury, Walton and Shepperton ; and the results are given in the form of tables, together with a comparison with the plankton of the main stream. Though there is a considerable difference both in quality and quantity, the backwaters have far more of a river than a pond-plankton. Scottish Fresh-water Plankton.j — W. West and G. S. West give the result of their examination of the plankton of some lochs in various parts of Scotland. They divide their paper into four sections. The first is an Introduction, which deals with previous literature on British fresh-water plankton, and contains remarks on the present collection and the method of obtaining it. In Section II. the various lochs examined are described geographically, and notes are given on the animal plank- ton which was collected with the algae. Two tables follow, one of which enumerates the species from eleven lochs taken in summer and autumn, and the other deals with a few small collections made in the south of Scotland during the spring. Section III. consists of a systematic account of the most interesting species in the preceding plankton collections. This is almost entirely confined to Desmids, of which six new species and some new varieties are described. An interesting record is Staurastrwii verticillatum Archer, no figure of which has hitherto been published ; since the so-called figure of it in Cooke's BritisJi Desmids, 188G, tab. CI, fig. 3, does not represent this species. The general conclusions of the authors form the contents of Section IV. They find that the Scottish plankton differs considerably from that of the western parts of continental Europe. It is unique in the abundance of its Desmids, of which the most conspicuous are of a type confined almost exclusively to the extreme western and north-western shore districts of Europe and North America. The commonest and most abundant species are invariably those of the genus Staurastrum, principally S. Ophiura, S. Aretiseon, ar.d * Ann. Bot., xvii. (1903) pp. 631-47. t Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot., xxxv. (1903) pp. 519-50 (5 pis.). 88 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO S. grande. There are very few free-swimming Protococcoidete. The majority of the species of Staufastrum and Arthrodesmus are remarkable for their long spines or long processes with spinate apices, and this characteristic holds good throughout the entire plankton. The most striking diatoms are Asterionella gracillima, Tabellaria fenestrata var. asterionelloides, and forms of Surirella robusta. The plankton is richer in species in late summer and autumn than in the spring. Phytoplankton from Brandenburg Lakes.*— E. Lemmermann con- tinues the publication of his investigations into the phytoplankton of the Muggelsee and other neighbouring waters. His results are first presented in the form of tables or lists for each month from May to Sep- tember 1897, and from June 1898 to May 1899, with details concerning the temperature of air and water, the wind, the presence or absence of sunshine, etc., on the specified days. Then follow deductions from the tables as to the development of the plankton flora during these two periods of investigation, tracing the maximum of various groups and species. Finally, lists are given, arranged systematically, of all the species hitherto recorded from the Muggelsee, and eleven other lakes and waters. Plankton of Hallstatter See.f — K. von Keissler, in a paper on this subject, records five species of Chlorophycere and three of Bacillariacese, with indications of the seasonal distribution of each species. Norwegian Phytoplankton.^— C. H. Ostenfcld publishes a list of 43 plankton algae found by him in two lakes in the Rendalen district, Lomnaessjon and Harsjon. He finds that the algae of the former lake are much the same as those recorded from the forest lakes of Lappmark, and include Dinobryon (which is predominant), Tabellaria fenestrata, T. floeculosa and Aster ionella formosa. Myxophyceae and Peridiniacea? are entirely absent, and the Chlorophyceae are rare. The phytoplankton of Lake Harsjon is rather rich, and differs entirely from that of Lom- naeesjon, but resembles strikingly that of Swiss lakes. The author adds critical notes to tAvelve of the species recorded. Russian Fresh-water Algae.§— L. Iwanoff gives an account of the vegetation growing in and around certain lakes, especially Lake Bologoje. The first chapter of his work contains a physical and geographical description of that lake, with a list of the diatoms which help to compose the thick mud at the bottom. The second chapter deals with the distribution of the vegetation in Lake Bologoje, and the subject is treated in some detail. The third chapter contains a list of 438 alg&> from nine other Russian lakes. In the fourth are given diagnoses of new species, and remarks on species already existing which present points of special interest. Among these may be mentioned the division of the monad of Uroglena volvoz Ehrcnb., which is here described for the first time. The fifth chapter is devoted to a study of 'Algae-formations,' * Zeitscli. f. Fischerei, xi. (1903) pp. 7.3-123 (figs, in icxi). f Yerliandl. k. k. Z< ol. But. Gesell. Wicn, liii. (1903) PP- 33S-4S. I Bot. Ti.lssk., xxv. (1903) pp. '235-41. § V.d. biol. Station Uologoju d. Kais St. Pet. Nsifurfv., ii. (1T02) 152 pp. Sco also Bot. Centralbl., xciii.(!903) pp. 379 87. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 89 the Aerophilae, Geophihe, Reophike, or those that inhabit running water, Magmaphilre, or tuft-forming alga:, Paludophilse, Phytoplankton, and finally, those that live at the bottom of lakes, etc. Tables are given showing the Desmids and other alga3 which live in bogs, composed of Sphagnum or Hypnum respectively. The paper is written in Russian. " Flowering " of North American Lakes.* — Marshall A. Howe describes an alga which appears in great quantities at Honnedaga Lake, Herkimer County, New York, and appears to be Gloiotrkliia echinidata P. Richt. The same plant occurs freely at Chilson Lake, Essex County, Avhere it forms small colonies, which are usually spherical. No spores were found, but the resemblance between these plants and those from the Plon Station, in Germany (No. 587, PhyTcotheka universalis of Hauck and Richter), is so great, that there is little doubt as to their identity. The Lake Chilson specimens show a greater development of terminal hairs than those figured in Hauck and Richter (1. a), but the hairs vary with the age of the colony, and in some stages they may be entirely wanting. The colonies multiply by means of hormogonia. The author makes remarks on the " flowering " of other American lakes and on the synonomy of Gloiotrkliia echinulata. New England Desmids.j — J. A. Cushman records 30 species of Desmids found by him in Steep Brook, Massachusetts, about three miles north of Fall river railway station. Staurastrum was well represented in the collection. Notes on the measurements and other points of special interest follow each species' name, and a bibliography of New England Desmids completes the first of a series of papers on this subject. The second paper gives two lists of Desmids from New England, one locality being in Massachusetts, the other in Maine. The first contains 20 species, the second 25 species, both lists including records formerly doubtful. Fresh-water Algae from Brazil and Paraguay.} — 0. Borge has worked out the collection of Desmidiacea? brought home by the Regnell Expedition, and publishes the results, including descriptions of 28 new species and some new varieties. A list of 55 localities is given, of which 44 are in Brazil, and the remainder in Paraguay. The same author records eleven species of Zygnemaceas and Meso- carpaceaa from the same collection, including two new species, Spirogyra paraguayensis and Gonatonema splmrospora. Diatoms New to the Hull Districts — R. H. Philip adds some new records to the diatoms already known from this part. The rock pools at Filey, and the flats east of Cleethorpes on the Lincolnshire coast, have yielded good material. The most interesting find was Surirella medulka Per., from a ditch in the low-lying country between the wold i and the Market "Weighton canal, called Hotham Carrs. Some of the frustules show an indentation on one side of the valve, and a specimen of this form is figured, together with a typical specimen. Many other species are figured in a plate. • Torreya, iii. (1903) pp. 150-4. f Rhodora, v. (1903) pp. 221-5, 252-5. X Arkiv. Bot. Stockholm, i. (1903) pp. 71-138, 277-86 (pis. 1-5, 15). § Trans. Hull tfci. & Field Nat. Club, iii. (1903) pp. 110-14 (pi. xi., rip. in text). 90 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Diatoms and Plankton from the Faeroes.* — E. Oestrup enumerates 182 species from these islands. The material at his disposal consisted of the collections of Borgesen and Helgi Jonsson, and included 136 gatherings from different localities. The following genera are the most characteristic of the whole : Amphipleura, Cocconeis, Fragilaria, Gom- yhonema, Grammatopliora, Licmophora, Navicula, and Synedra. A list is given of the species most frecptently found in localities exposed to the open sea, and it is pointed out that there exists no slight resemblance between the genera characteristic of the Faeroes and of Greenland. C. H. Ostenfeld gives a list, accompanied by critical notes, of 54 diatoms found in the marine plankton round the Faeroes. Tables are also drawn up giving for each species the locality, date, temperature C°, and salinity pro mille. Notes are given on the geographical distribution of the species. An account of the Peridiniaceas is included. Foslie, M. — New Species or Forms of Melobesieae. [The author describes four new species of these coralline algae, and four new forms of already existing species. They all occur on the western coast of North America.] K. Norslce Vidensh. Sets. Shrift., 1902, No. 2, 11 pp. Karsten, G. — Zur Frage der Auxosporentypen. (On the types of auxospores.) [A criticism on Meretckkowsky's views concerning auxospore formation. Among other points, the author denies that auxospores are entirely a condition of growth, and maintains that the periods of the first auxospore formation and those of its growth are quite distinct.] Bot. Zeit., ii. (1903) pp. 306-11. Pa ji pal on i, L. — Sopra un singolare modo di comportarsi di un' alga, allorche venga coltivata in determinate sostanze nutritizie. Nota preliminare. (Pre- liminary note on the curious behaviour of an alga when cultivated on certain nutritious substances.) [Cultivation of Protococcus calda riorum-'] Nuov. Giorn. Bot. Ital, x. (1903) pp. G02-5 (with figs, in text). Pekagallo, H.—Diatomees marines de France. (Marine diatoms of France.) [A continuation of a former paper, and describes fifteen species and three varieties of Campylodiscm.~] Le Micrographe Prcparatcur, >.i. (199") pp. 18G-9. Tilden, J. E. — Algae collecting in the Hawaiian Islands. [An account of the author's experiences.] Postehia, 1902, pp. 135-75. De Toni, G. B., & Achille Fokti — Pugillo di Diatomee bentoniche del Lago Ngebel (Giava). (Small collection of Benthon-Diatoms from Lake Ngebel, in Java.) [List of 24 diatoms, with notes and bibliography.] Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital, 1903, pp. 133-41. Fungi. New Chytridinea9,t — F. E. Fritsch has found parasitic on a fresh- water alga two species of RestkuJaria, one of them already recorded by Dangeard, the other new to science, which he names R. Boodlei. The fungus occupies the cells of the host from which hyphse pass out into the open, branching and forming spores. No zoospores were seen. * Bot. of the Faeroes, pt. ii. (1903) pp. 533-611. t Ann. Bot., xvii. (1903) pp. 649-G4 (1 pi.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICEOSCOPV, ETC. 91 Basidiobolus Lacertae.* — W. Loewenthal found the spores of this fungus in the intestine of the lizard. Germination was easily induced either in distilled or tap water. The spores grew out into a short septate filament, or a slight pseudotissue was formed. The vegetative cells were all nucleate. Zygospores are formed by the fusion of the nuclei of two neighbouring cells. The process is somewhat similar to that observed in B. Ranarum. The writer considers that the fungus reproduces itself in the lizard, as he found other types of spores smaller in size. Research on the Genus Streptothrix.j — L. Petri found a form of Streptothrix growing on the roots of Fragaria. He isolated it and made cultures and reinfected other healthy plants. The Str&ptothrix grew very sparingly, and did not impair the healthiness of the host- plant. Petri therefore concluded that it was only a saprophyte. The cells in which it was found were empty of contents and dark in colour. The writer takes occasion to review the affinities of Str&ptothrix. He gives a list of known species and records the results of his cultures. He calls special attention to the formation of vesicles laterally on the filaments. They are not conidial in their nature, and development of the filament ceases when they are formed. He compares them with the clavate formation of Actinomyces. They are formed of a mucilaginous substance the nature of which is not determined, and are presumably to be regarded as a degenerative process of the filament. Note on Phycomycetes4 — M. Henning Eiler Petersen records the fungal flora he found on the chrysalis of caddis-worms. There were a number of oomycetes, their presence doubtless being due to the nutritive quality of the substratum. The absence of hairs seems to allow the development of the sporangia of various Chytridinese. Besides forms already known he records three new genera of that order : Rhizo- closmetium with branching hair-like mycelium and globose sporangium ; Asterophlgctis, with a somewhat hemispherical sporangium studded with protuberances, but akin to the previous genus ; and Siphonaria, near to the genus Obelidium and distinguished by the thick-walled empty- looking rhizoids. Contribution to our Knowledge of Peronosporese.§ — A disease of cucumbers occurring in the Twer Government was indentified by S. J. Rostowzen as similar to that caused by the fungus Plasmopara cubensis, and hitherto found only in America. He gives an account of the damage done by the disease, and devotes attention to the fungus itself. The conidia, which are borne on branched conidiophores, like those of Peronospora, are violet-grey in colour, and have at the tip a colourless papilla which is characteristic of species of Plasmopara, and on germimtion they form zoospores, also a feature of Plasmopara. This peculiarity had already been noted by Humphrey, who considered the fungus in question a transition form between the two genera. * Archiv. f. Protistenkunde, ii. (1903) pp. 364-420. See also Bot. Zeit., lxi. (19C3) |'p. 326-7. t Nuovo. Giom. Hot. Ital., x. (1903) pp. 585-601 (2 figs.). X Journ. ile Bot. xvii. (1903) pp. 214-22 (17 figs ). § Flora, xoii. (19l 3) pp. 40. r -25 (3 pis.). 92 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Uostowzen found that in the plant he was examining:, the conidia formed zoospores or they germinated by a tube. He places it under a new genus, Pseudoperonospora, and, as it differs slightly from the species cubensis first described by Berkeley and Curtis, he designates it as var. tweriensis. Studies on the Fertilisation of Albugo Lepigoni and some Peronosporeae.* — W. Ruhland records the results of his research on several forms of Oomycetes. Albugo Lepigoni grew on Spergida marina ; the oogonia developed rather plentifully towards the end of the vege- tative period. In the young oogonium there are some 60 to 90 nuclei present. These increase in size and the first mitosis takes place, simultaneously in the oogonium and the antheridium. The chromo- somes, about four or five in number, were extremely small and evidently round in form. At a further stage the nuclei wander towards the periphery of the oogonium ; other divisions must take place though they were not followed in detail, but the number of nuclei increased to o00 or 450. The latter stages of division show a much smaller spindle. Meanwhile the ccenocentrum had appeared towards the centre of the oogonium. It absorbs the surrounding plasma and increases to a rela- tively large size. The female nucleus attaches itself to the ccenocentrum, and after division and degeneration of the resulting daughter nucleus it is joined by the male nucleus from the antheridium, and both enter the ccenocentrum, which gradually disappears as the nuclei increase in size. They show a very fine spirem stage, then fusion takes place and subsequent division, the dividing nucleus resembling the first karyo- kinesis in the oogonium, with the same number of chromosomes. By repeated division, some seventy to eighty nuclei are formed, and the oogonium becomes surrounded by a thick exospore formed from the periplasm. In Peronospora Alsinwrum the nuclei of the oogonium divided only once, and the " period of zonation," when all the nuclei had travelled to the periphery, lasted a considerable time. A ccenocentrum appeared here also. Fusion of the two nuclei was delayed for a considerable time till after the exospore was formed, ficlerospora graminicola provided an immense number of oogonia. These contained few nuclei. The spindle formed in mitosis was very large, and the chromosomes had a U shape. Xo ccenocentrum was present, and probably owing to this the male nucleus remains for some time at a distance from the female nucleus. The different stages are described in detail. In Plasmopara densa the development largely resembles that of iSderosjwra. There is no ccenocentrum, and in both forms the periplasm is drawn into the oospore, and the exospore is consequently of a slighter structure. The writer concludes by reviewing the work done on all the forms of Albugo. He finds a regular gradation of forms from Albugo Bliti, in which a large number of female nuclei fused Avith male nuclei, to A. Lepigoni, where only one is present. The receptive papilla is also * Jahrb. Wiss. Hot., xxxix. (1903) pp. 135-6G (2 pis.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 93 less developed, while the ccenocentrum is larger. He compares, finally, the development of the Albuginacefe with the Peronsporacese. Peronospora on Rheum undulatum.* — A. Osterwalder found that the fungus causes small reddish spots on the leaves. The conidiophores emerged from the leaf on the under side through the stomata. Oospores were not seen, but the writer considers the species to be the same as Peronospora pohjgoni. The conidiophores and conidia are of a slightly violet colour. Biology of Cystopus candidus.f — Albert Eberhardt describes the changes brought about in the host-plant by tbe presence of the parasite. There was universal hypertrophy and distortion, alteration of form in the floral organs, physiological changes in the cell-contents and in the cell-forms, etc. He tested by culture experiments the specialisation of the parasite, and found that within a limited range of host species the conidia from Cystopus would infect easily. With conidia taken from T ragopog on prate nsis it was impossible to infect any of the Cruciferae. Notes on Syncephalis.^: — Paul Yuillemin records a new species, Syncephalis adunca, and makes an examination of the section Curvatce. He insists on the autonomy of S. curvatce, which has been included under S. cornu, and gives his reasons for doing so. The new species is yellow in colour, and the spores occur in chains of four, the enclosing membrane (merisporocyste) remains visible up to maturity. Vuillemin places it between S. nigricans and S. curvata. Zygospore of Mucorini.§ — Paul Vuillemin has studied the process of zygospore formation, especially in Sporodinia, with a view to watching the fusion of the wall of the gametes. After the two copulatory branches . have joined, the end of each remains for a time distinct, forming a median wall, and a new layer is then laid down on each side of it and on the external walls of the cells. Vuillemin notes that these two layers fuse separately, the primitive central wall disappearing first. The later- formed layers coalesce into one, to be in turn absorbed in the pro- toplasm of the zygospore. New Genus of Phacidieae.j] — R. Maire and P. A. Saccardo found a minute Discomycete parasitic on the leaves of Juniperus Oxycedrus, half covered by the torn epidermis. The fungus had no excipulum, the asci were tetrasporous, and the spores two-celled, brown ; characters which are found in no existing genus. The writers have named it Didymascella Oxycedri, one of the Phacidiere, and ^near to Didymascas in form and structure. Fertilisation in Ascodesmis.lf — P. A. Dangeard finds at the origin of the perithecium, branches of the hypliEe which fuse in pairs, as they do in Gymnoascus. The number varies from six to ten for each fruit. The two branches, which wind round each other in a spiral, are at first * Centralbl. Bakt , x. (1903) pp. 775-7 (3 figs.). f Tom. cit„ pp. G55-6. % Ann. Mycol., i. (1903) pp. 420-7 (1 pi.). § Comptes Reudus, cxxxvii. pp. SCO— 71. || Aim. Mycol., i. (1903) pp. 417-19 (4 figs.). *j[ Comptes Rendus, cxxxvii. (1903) pp 528-9 94 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO identical, but one, the ascogonium, gradually becomes richer in contents. Both branches are multinucleate, seven or eight nuclei in the ascogonium, three or four in the antheridium. A cell is cut off at the tip of the ascogonium analogous to the trichogyne of Monascus ; after the separa- tion of the trichogyne only four or five nuclei are to be seen in the ascogonium, but they are larger, and they furnish, after division, the copulatory nuclei of the asci. Dangeard explains the theory of this retarded copulation by comparison with the Siphomycetes. He considers it to be sexual fertilisation. Cytology of Galactinia succosa.*— It. Maire, with a view to elucidate the affinity between nuclear evolution in the Ascomycetes and the Basidiomycetes, has studied one of the higher Pezizas, Galactinia succosa. This species is of interest in having laticiferous elements which are still but little known in the Ascomycetes. The author finds that it shows a real relationship with the Basidiomycetes from the point of view of its nuclear evolution ; the presence of a group of synkaryons before the formation of the ascus, places it above the other Ascomycetes : we find here the first suggestion of that phase in the life-history, the synharyophyte, which plays so important a part in the development in the Basidiomycetes. Infection Experiments with Nectria ditissima.f— Bud. Aderhold refuses to accept Brzezinski's theories as to the origin of canker in fruit trees. The latter had failed to induce canker by infection with Nectria spores, but in all cases had done so by injecting Bacterium Mali into the trees. By repeated experiments Aderhold has proved that Nectria causes the wounds known as canker, not only in apple and pear trees, where it is well known, but in cherry trees and plum trees, where its parasitism was unsuspected. The writer has found canker wounds on cherry trees not due to artificial infection, in all points resembling those induced by the introduction of Nectria, but he was unable to find the fruiting form of the fungus. He calls for further proof by Brzenzinski of his theory before it can be received. Morphological and iBiological Researches on Stysanus.J — F. Gueguen has come to the conclusion that Stysanus Mandlii is only a form of St. Stemonites. From both he developed a similar perithecial form, Melanospora siysanophora. The ascus spores were cultivated in turn, and produced a form of Acladium, brown chlamydo-spores and new perithecia, but Gueguen failed to reproduce the Stysanus form. He cultivated also Echinobotryum atrum, so frequently found on Stysanus^ He considers it a sessile form of St. ftmetarius. He has classified some other forms with St. Stemonites, and thinks that, though usually sapro- phytic, it may grow as a true parasite. Rhizoctonia violacea.§ — Jakob Eriksson completes his account of experiments with this fungus-disease of roots. He had already recorded that the parasite can transfer itself to other roots, and that in succeeding * Coniptcs Bendus, cxxxvii. (1903) pp. 769-71. f Cenlraibl. Bakt., x. (1903) pp. 763-6. % Bull. Soc Mvcol. France, sir. (1903) pp. 217-44 (3 pis.). § Centralbl. Bakt., x (1903) pp. 766-75 (1 pi. and 1 tig.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 95 generations this power of adaptation grows stronger. He has proved that, m the second generation, such an adapted fungus increased greatly in vitality and destructive power. The new fungus race is, however, less hardy, and succumbs easily to unfavourable weather conditions. Lime has proved useless as a fungicide, but Eriksson thinks that carbolic lime and petroleum water may prove effective remedies for the disease. Experiments with Heteroecius Rusts.* — M. Tranzschel records the successful injection of JEcidium Jeucosptermum, from Anemone nemorosa, on Sorbus Aucuparia, the uredospores of Ochrospora sorbi developed. He further proved the connection of Puccinia on Polygonum amphibii, with JE. sanguinolentum on Geranium ; of a Puccinia, on Carex limosa y with JE. Trientalis, and of JE. coruscans, on Picea, with a species of Chrysomyxa on Ledum palustre. Vegetative Form of Yellow Rust.f— Jakob Eriksson has revised his work on Mycoplasma, and finds that the bodies which he termed " corpuscles speciaux " are not the first visible form of the fungus, as they belong to a later stage in its development. He finds, first of all, in the cells of the leaf a granular vacuolated substance, which takes a darker violet colour when fixed and stained with Flemming, and is the myco- plasma. When the first spots of rust begin to appear, a plasmic mass is formed occupying the tissue between the different sori. It spreads as mycelial filaments between the cells, or it occupies the intercellular spaces ; this stage he terms protomyceUum. In the third stage the protomycelium becomes septate, and forms a pseudoparenchyma, and this is followed by the formation of the sporiferous hymenium. Hetercecious Rusts. J — H.Klebahn has collected from many sources all that is known about these rusts. He gives a list of the species of which the life-cycle has been traced — 150 in all — and discusses the different questions touching on their growth. The occurrence of the different forms, the conditions that influence their growth, spore dissemi- nation, infection, methods of culture, theories as to the spread of the rust disease, and theories as to their sexuality, occupy the first part. The second half of the book takes up each species in full detail. There are complete indices and graphic tables of illustration ; the whole forming a valuable summary and book of reference. Infection Experiments with Rusts.§ — Ernst Jordi extends still further our knowledge as to the specialisation of rust forms. Under Uromyces Fake he finds there are four specialised forms on the different- hosts, species of Vicia., Lathy r us and Pisum. Uromyces Ervi grew only on Vicia hirsuta. U. AnUnjllidis infected only AnthyJUs Vulneraria. Experiments were also made with U. Hedysari obscuri and U. Astragali. The latter species grows on a number of host-plants. * Centralbl. Bakt., xi. (1903) p. 10G. t Comptes Rcudns, cxxxvii. (1903) pp. o7S-< c 0. % Die Wirtsweehseliulcn Ro^tpilze. (Jebr. Boi ntr'.iger, Berlin, 1903, pp. xxxvii. and 447. § Centralis. Bakt. x. (1933) pp. 777-9. 96 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Iainier, M. G. — Sur quelques especes de Mucorinees nouvelles ou peu connues. (Some new or little-known sp cies of Mucorini.) [The new genera are I'arasitella, Gloniertila and Pfeudo-absidi'a, each with one species. There are ten new species of Mucor, and one new CircineJla. The writer describes the zygospores in the latter genus: they had not been hitherto known.] Bull. Soc. Mycol. France,x\x. (1903) pp. 153-72(2 pis.). Baubiek, Ma uk ice — Liste annotee d'Hymenomycetcs des environs de Dijon. 3me partie. [This part includes the Polyporese, Hydneoe, Thelephoreaj, Cyphellea?, Corticieaj, Clavariese, Calocerso and Tremellacese, with critical notes on many of the species.] Bull. Soc Mycol. France, xix. (1903) pp. 273-90. Boudi e r, E. — Note sur quelques Ascomycetes nouveaux du Jura. [The author describes and figures six new species.] Butt. Soc. Mycol. France, xix. (1903) pp. 193-9 (1 pi.). Oavaba, F. — Novita Micologiche Siciliane. (New Sicilian fungi) [Peziza Ammopkila, found on the leaves of Arunrio Mauritanica and Awers- ualdia Cheemerops, parasitic on Chiemerops humilis, in tiie botanical garden of Catatonia.] Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital , No. 4 (1903) pp. 114-55. Costantin et Lucet — Sur un Rhizopus pathogene. [A new pathogenic form, Rhizopus equinus, i- described by the authors.] Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, xix. (1903) pp. 200-16(2 pis.). D i e t e l, P. — TJeber die Teleutosporenform von Uredo laeviuscula D. & H. und iiber Melampsora Fagi D. el Neg. [The author finds that the first of these plants is Thekopsora laeviuscula D. and H., and that the second is not a Melampsora, but Mikronegeria Fagi.] Ann. Mycol., i. (1903) pp. 415-17. Eakle, F. S. — Mycological Studies. [A synopsis of the North American species of the genus Periconia, and a list of other new fungi. The new genera are Hypodermopsis, an Ascomyccte l somewhat similar to Hi/poderma, and OKUrieUa, near akin to Older ia.~] Bull. New York Bot. Garden, ii. (1902) pp. 331-50. Hese y, E. — La lutte contre le champignon des maisons. Experiences recentes. (Methods of destroying dry-rot.) [A description of the various antiseptic solutions used to impregnate wood and render it sterile.] Bull. Mensuel. Soc Sci. Nancy, 1902, 11 pp. See also Centralbl. Bald., x. (1903) pp. 809-10. lloHNEL, Fkanz V. — Mycologische Fragmente. [A large series of new forms and critical notes on species already described. The new genera are Heimerlia, amyxomycete, one of the Krhinosteliacere, and Siropatella and Agyricllopsis, belonging to Excipulaeese] Ann. Mycol. i. (1903) pp. 391-414. Hollos, Laszlo — "Descriptions of Fungi. [The writer de>cnbes a new genus. Glasteropsis, from South Africa, and two species of Lycoperd»n from South Carolina.] Bot.Sekt. K. Ungar-Natorius, Ges., ii. (1903) pp. 72-0. Kaserer, Hermann — Versuche zur bekampfung von Peronospora und Oidium ini Jahre 1902. (Methods of destroying Peronospora and Oidium during the year 1902.) [Solutions cont dning copper were found more effectual than the employment ofsulrjbur.] Zeitschr. Landwirtsch. Ver sucks icesen in Oesttrreich. 1903, 2u5 pp. See also Ceulralbl. Bald., x. (1903) p. 809. vellerman, W. A. — Ohio Fungi. Fascicle VIII. [The fascicle included 5J0 fungi, all of them parasitic on various hosts. Diagnoses of some of the species are given.] Journ. of Mycol., ix. (1903) pp. 171 0. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 97 K jk L'L e r m a n, W. A. — Index to North American Mycology. [Alphabetical list of articles, authors, subjects, new species and hosts, new names and synonyms.] Joum. of Mycol., ix. (1903) pp. 177-199. Konino, C. J. — Bijdrage tot de kennis van het levender humicole fungi en van de scheikundige processen welke bij de humificatic plaats hebben. [Deals with the microfungi that live on decaying vegetation, and discusses their disintegrating action on humus.] Verhand. K. Akad. Wetensch. Amsterdam, ix. (1903) No. 7, 69 pp. Lindau, Gustav — Hilfsbuch fur das Sammeln der Ascomyceten mit Beruck- sichtigung der Nahrpflanzen Deutschlands, Osterreich-Ungarns, Belgiens, der Schweiz und der Niederlande. [Aid to the collection of Ascornycetes, with regard to their host-plants and the substances on which they grow ] Oebr. Borntrager, Berlin, 1903. See Bot. ZeiL, lxi. (1903) pp. 321-2. Lindner, P. — Zum nachweis von untergariger Bierhefe in Preszhefe. Zeitgchr. Spiritusindustrie, Bd. xxvi. No. 22, p. 229. See also Centralbl. Bald., x. (1903) pp. 663-4. Macalpine, D. — Australian Fungi. New or unrecorded. Decades IIL-IV. [Forty species of microfungi, most of them parasitic on leaves, etc. Fifteen are new species.] Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales, xxviii. (1903) pp. 94-103. Maublanc, A. — Sur quelques especes nouvelles de champignons inferieurs. [The writer describes 18 new species of microfungi. There is one new genus, Nomurxa, a member of the Hyphomycetes.] Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, xix. (1903) pp. 291-6 (2 pis.). Molliard Marin — Observations sur le Cyphella ampla Lev., obtenu en culture pure. (Observations on Cyphella ampla grown in a pure culture.) [The fungus was developed from the basidiospores.] Bull. Sue. Mycol. France, xix. (1903) pp. 146-9. „ „ Sur une condition qui favorise la production des peritheces ches les Ascobolus. (On a condition which favours the production of the fruit of Ascobolus.) [The writer finds the associalion of a bacterium necessary for the formation of the fruits of Ascobolus fur/uraceus.'] Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, xix. (1903) pp. 150-2. Magnin, M. L. — TJn cas d'empoisonnement par l'Amanita muscaria. (A case of poisoning due to Amanita muscaria.) [Some pathological notes on the effects of the poison.] Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, xix. (1903) pp. 173-5. Mubbill, W. A. — The Polyporaceae of North America. (V.) The genera Cryptoporus, Piptoporus, Scutiger and Porodiscus. [The writer is dealing chiefly with the somewhat fleshy terrestrial forms, which are exceedingly rare and beautiful in North America. The genus Porodiscus is new, and has been created to contain the species knowi? as Cyphella pendula.'] Bull. TorxeyBot. Club, xxx. (1903) pp. 423-34. Patodillabd, N.— Addition an Catalogue des champignons de la Tunisie (suite). [A list of fungi, with habitat and locality ; with critical notes on some of the species, several of which are new to science.] Bidl. Soc. Mycol. France,\ix. (1903) pp. 245-61. Pennington, Stcab t — Uredineae from South America. [The writer records 30 B[ ecies.J Anal. Soc. Cientif. Arg. Ix. (1903) pp. 81-40. See also Bot. Centralbl. xciii. p. 273. Saocardo, P. A. — Florae mycologicse Lusitanicae. [The list enumerates 129 species. A number of the species of Microfungi on the leaves and stems of plants are new to science ] Bol. da Soc. Bot., 190^, pp. 1-16. See also Ann. Mycol, xix. (1903) pp. 458-9. Feb. 17th, 1904 H 98 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Saccardo, P. A., & Traverso. G. B. — Contriburione alia flora micologica della Sardegna. [The writers take up the work begun by the late A. N. Berlese. They enu- merate 167 species of Microfungi, ten of them new to science.] Ann. Mycol, i. (1903) pp. 427-44 (1 pi.). Sydow, H. & P. — Neue und kritische TJredineae. (Nesv and critical Uredineae.) [Many of ihe species from various parts of the world are described for the first time.] Ann. Mycol, i. (1903) pp. 324-34. Tra verso, G. B. — Primo elenco di Micromiceti di Valtellina. (First catalogue of Micromycetes from Valteilina.) [The writer records l. r >7 species ; several of them are new to science.] Ann. Mywl, i. (1903) pp. 297-323(5 figs.). Zahlbruckner, A. — TIeber die systematische Gruppierung der pyrenokarpen Flechten. [The author has grouped them in six families, accordins to the formation of thallus and fruit.] Verhandl. Zool.-botan. Ges. Wien, 1903, pp. 81-2. See also Ann. Mycol, i. (1903) p. 474. „ „ Die "Parmelia ryssolea " der pennonischen Flora. [A description and diagnosis of this plant.] Magyar botan. Lapok., ii. (1903) pp. 169-175 (1 pi.). See also Ann. Mycol, i. (1903) p. 474. Lichens. Lecanora subfusca.*— A. Hue has looked through a large amount of material, and finds that this very wide-spread Lichen has three distinct varieties and a number of forms. They are distinguished by the form of the apothecium. Lichens from Socotra.f — J. Steiner worked through a small collec- tions of Lichens made by O. Simony, and found three new genera and eleven new species. The new genera are Simonyella and Roccellographa, both belonging to the Koccellacese. The latter has a distinct Graphidean fruit, and this confirms Darbishire's view of the position of Roccella among the Graphideae. The remaining new genus, Phlc&opeccania, belongs to the family of Glceolichenen. Mycetozoa. Development of Myxomycetes. J — M. Pinoy had already found that various species of endosporous myxomycetes would not grow in pure cultures until some bacterium was added to the medium. He has carried out further researches on Dictyostelium mucoroides. He considers that the bacterium associated with the species of Acrasise exercises a consider- able influence in determining the colour and the form of the organism, and that species described as distinct from each other are merely the same species associated with different chromogenic bacteria. Fries, Rob. E. — Myxomyceten von Argentinien and Bolivia. [Myxomycetes of Argentina and Bolivia collected and determined by the author, forty-seven species in all. He notes the comparatively large occurrence of species with lime in the sporangia.] Arkiv.for Botanik. K. bvens. Vetenskaps-Akad., i. (1903) pp. 57-70. * Bull. Soc. Bot. France, 1903, pp. 22-86. See also Ann. Mvcol., i. (1903) p. 472. t Deutschr. Kaiserl. Akad. Wiss. Wien, lxxi. ^1902) 1903, pp. 93-102. See also Ann. Mycol., i. (1903) pp. 475. X Cumptes Reudus, cxxxvii. (1903) pp. 580-1. , ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 99 Schizophyta. Schizomycetes. Uric Acid Bacterium.* — C. Ulpiani gives the results of his work on a micro-organism capable of causing the following change in uric acid : C 5 H 4 N 4 3 + H 2 + 30 = 2C0p. Pit., i. (1881) pp. 203-11. i Op. cit., i. (1881) pp. 38&-12 i. ** Op. cit., ii. (1882) pp. 300-9, 4G0-73 ; iii. (1883) pp. 790-S12. tt Op. cit. iv. (1884) pp. 20-2G. }$ Op. cit, iv. (1881) pp. 348-51. Feb. 17th, 1904 i 114 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING To 20. On improvements of the Microscope by means of new kinds of optical glass (1886). 21. On the effect of illumination by means of wide-angled cones of light (1889).* 22. On the adaptability of fluorite for optical purposes (1890). Focussing Safeguard.! — In showing microscopic objects to those unacquainted with the use of a Microscope, there is always the risk of accidental injury to either the slides or objectives when the latter are of short focal length. To obviate risk of injury S. E. Dowdy has devised the following contrivance (fig. 1G). A B is a metal collar, velvet lined, with a screw at A for clamping on to the objective. D is a fine screw rotating with arm B C, and having a felt-covered circular base, E. In use, the objective should first be accurately Fig. 16. focussed, and then by means of the fine adjustment brought within its focal length, with its front lens as near as possible to the cover-glass without touching it. The screw D is then rotated until the base touches the slide, when it will be obvious that it would be impossible to bring the objective into contact with the cover, though focussing in a safe direction may be effected to any extent. Ultra-Microscopic Investigation of Colour-matters and their Physiological Significance.! — A. Birch-Hirschfeld describes howBaehl- mann used a new Microscope, introduced by Siedentopf and Zsigmondy, of Jena, which, by means of a brilliant focal, lateral illumination, renders visible the smallest particles (5/a to 10//) in their natural colour. With this instrument he examined solutions of colouring matter, such as Prussian-blue, carmine, ultramarine, naphthol-yellow, and so forth. The resolution of each of the colouring matters into its component colours * Journ. E.M.S., ix. (1889) pp.721-4. t English Mechanic, lxxviii. (1903) p. 291 (1 fig.). X Ophth. Klinik, Aug. 20 and Oct. 5, 1903. See Ophthalmoscope, i. (1903) p. 21 8. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 11; yields an unsuspected insight into the physical and physiological nature of colour, and is of importance as regards our conception of the mixing of colour. The smallest particles of a pure colouring matter are not only characterised by their colour, but probably also by distinctive form and movements. It therefore follows that colouring matters may be analysed by this method. The composite colours examined showed their smallest component particles either lying alongside each other (physio- logical mixture of colours), or were seen to consist of particles differing in shape, movement, and colour from those of the components. This condition has been proved by more recent researches — for example, on a mixture of Prussian-blue and naphthol-yellow — to rise from the fact that the particles of one component cluster around those of another, forming, as it were, a kind of sheath. This covering, according to Raehlmann, is formed by electro-magnetic action, minute negatively charged particles collecting around those positively charged, or vice versa. These composite particles may be again separated by the action of electro- magnetism. Dowdy, S. E. — Amateur Microscopy. [A series of four excellent articles upon this subject, describing a stu lent's Microscope, its apparatus, and the way to use it. The articles are well worth the attention of those intending to purchase a student's Microscope, as well as of those taking up the subject for the first time.] English Mechanic and World of Science, Ixxviii., Nos. 2003-11 (.Sept. and Oct. 1908). B. Technique.* (1) Collecting Objects, including: Culture Processes. Wright's Collecting Bottle.f — This (fig. 17) contains an improvement by the introduction of an extremely rapid siphon, which is covered with a cylinder of very fine silk, thus preventing the escape of the smallest rotifer during the drawing off •of the superfluous water. At the same time the fabric permits the water to be drawn off almost as quickly as it is poured into the bottle. This apparatus will be found invaluable to those collecting pond life, as gallons of water can be rapidly drawn off by means of the siphon without sacrificing a single insect. A cork bung with boxwood top is supplied to the bottle, to save the loss of material collected. ^ Fig. 17. • This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro- cesses; (2, Preparing Objects; (3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes ; (4) Staining and Injecting ; (5) Mounting, including slides, preservative fluids, &c. ; (6) Miscellaneous. t J- Swift & Son's Catalogue, Loudon, 1901, p. 42. I 2 116 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Bacteriological Methods in Sanitary Water Analysis.* — C. E. A. Winslow and C. P. Nibecker in an extensive series of water examina- tions employed the following bacteriological methods : (1) The gelatine plate at 20° C, the count being made after 48 hours. This count was found to roughly correspond to the free ammonia and " oxygen con- sumed" of chemical analysis, and indicates the amount of organic decomposition in process. A low count is, of course, highly reassuring, but a high one may only mean an exceptional multiplication of certain water forms. (2) The fermentation test, as determined by the gas formula obtained in dextrose-broth tubes after 24 hours, at 37° C. This was found to be especially useful as an indicator of B. coli. (3) The litmus-lactose-agar plate after 24 hours, at 37° C. This, by means of the total count and the count of the red colonies, gave a measure of the organisms which thrive at the body temperature, and of those which form acids, which latter are coming to be recognised as intestinal forms. Technique of the Bacteriology of the Blood.f — R. C. Rosenberger quotes the following procedure adopted by Coplin, who has elaborated and extended Sittmann's method. The middle half of the arm is washed with hot soap and water, and then with sterile water and GO p.c. alcohol. The arm is then covered with 1 to 1000 sublimate gauze. In 24 hours it is cleaned with alcohol and ether, followed by hot 1 to 1000 perchloride, and lastly with sterile water or normal salt solution. All the solutions should be used hot. The blood is withdrawn from the median vein with a syringe or an aspirating needle. 20 c.cm. of blood should be obtained. From this, plates maybe made bypassing blood into liquefied agar kept at 45° C, in the proportion of 2 to 3 c.cm. of blood to 6 c.cm. of medium. After thorough mixing, plates are made and incubated at 37° C. Bouillon in flasks should be inoculated ; 8 to 10 c.cm. of blood should be divided among flasks each containing 150 c.cm., so that the dilution is from 1 to 75 to 1 to 150. The flasks are well shaken and in- cubated at 37*5. If the bouillon become cloudy it is plated upon agar. Agar and serum slopes should be inoculated with 1 to 2 c.cm. of blood. Spreads on slides should be made, and animals inoculated with at least 5 c.cm. of blood. A sample of the blood may be incubated as a control or enrichment. Special solid media should be used for certain kinds, as urine agar or blood-serum agar for gonococcus, blood-smeared agar for Bacillus influenzal. The spreads and films should be stained with anilin pigments. The haemoglobin may be removed by immersion in 5 p.c. acetic acid for ten seconds. The acetic acid is removed by rapid aeration and by exposure to ammonia vapour. The film may then be stained for bacteria, the removal of the haemoglobin facilitating the search for micro-organisms. Cultivating Trypanosomes.t— W. J. McNeal and F. G-. Novy have cultivated Trypanosoma lewisi in a mixture of defibrinated rabbit's blood and agar. Agar, prepared in the usual way, is sterilised and cooled * Technology Quarterly, xvi. No. 3 (1903) pp. 227-30. t Araer. Juuru. Med. Sci., exxvi. (190b) pp. 234-57. % Bull. Inst. Pasteur, i. (1903) p. 602. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 117 down to 50° C. To this, one-third of its bulk of defibrinated rabbit's blood, obtained aseptically, is added, and agar slants made. Loopfuls of trypanosomatous rat's blood were sown in the condensation water, and the tubes incubated at from 81° to 37° C. (2) Preparing: Objects. New Method of Preparing Superficial Fungi.* — H. H. Whetzel has found the following method very useful for demonstrating the presence of mycelium and pycnidia of fungi : (1) Peel or slice off a piece of the epidermis on which the fungus is growing. (2) Immerse the slice in a 2 to 4 p.c. solution of KHO, and boil in an evaporating dish over a low flame for 20 to 30 minutes. Cook long enough to remove all colour from the tissue of the host. (3) Pour off the potassium hydrate, and wash by letting the material stand for 10 to 20 minutes in each of two or three changes of water. If all the colour be not removed from the host tissue, cook again. Pick away any pieces of sub-epidermal tissue that may cling to the epidermis. (1) Dehydrate in 95 p.c. alcohol. (5) Clear in a mixture of two parts carbolic acid and three parts turpentine. (6) Mount in balsam. The gist of the process lies in the fact that the pigment of the host- plant is bleached by caustic potash, while that of the parasite is not affected. Demonstrating the Statocysts of Cephalopods.f — R. Hamlyn- Harris fixed and decalcified the material by immersion in sublimate- acetic acid, though bichromate of potassium and acetic acid answered perfectly well. Heidenham's staining method gave the best results, though other stains were satisfactory. If the Statoliths were not sufficiently decalcified the Statocysts were imbedded in celloidin, and then decalcified with 1 to 2 p.c. hydrochloric acid. The celloidin was afterwards dissolved out, and the preparations imbedded in paraffin. Detection of Tubercle Bacilli in Organised Sediment by means of Centrifugalising or Simple Sedimentation.}: — C. Dilg gives the results of a research chiefly on the specific gravity of the sputum in relation to the position of tubercle bacilli in the tube of sputum after centrifugalising, i.e. as to whether these bacteria are present in the upper, middle, or deeper layers, as determined by the use of a capillary pipette. In estimating the specific gravity of the sputum, it was first rendered as air-free as possible by means of the air-pump, and then a modification of the blood method of Hammerschlag employed, an acetone-chloroform mixture being used. The specific gravity of the tubercle bacilli, if in pure culture, was estimated in the same way. If in sputum, it was held that if the bacilli were found copiously in the middle layers of the tube of sputum after centrifugalising, then they and the sputum were of the same specific gravity. By these means the author found that the specific gravity of the sputum varied between * Journ. MyooL, ix. (1903) pp. 218-9. t Zool. Juhrb., Abt. f. Morph., xviii. (1903) pp. 327-58 (5 pis.). % Zeitschr. f. angew. Mikr., ix. (1903; pp. 141-55. 118 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 0*9290 and 1*224:2, while that of tubercle bacilli varied between 1*0110 and 1*0760. The sputum is, therefore, sometimes lighter and sometimes heavier than the bacilli. The author accordingly proposes to ensure its always being heavier by the addition of an equal volume of a 25 p.c. salt solution, a drop of ammonia having previously been added. By this means the bacilli are always found in the surface layers, after centrifugalising, a drop being removed thence by means of a capillary pipette, placed on a slide, dried, and stained in the usual way. The added salt does not cause any difficulty in staining. The author has also devised an instrument which he names a " Sputumdensimeter,"' for the ready determining of the specific gravity of sputum. (4) Staining and Injecting - . Modification of Teichmann's Injection Syringe.*— Sieber describes some improvements which he has effected in this syringe (fig. 20). The Fig. 18, end of the piston-rod is grooved, so that, though fixed to the plunger, ] otary movement is permitted. The end-cap of the syringe snaps on by means of a bayonet-joint, and this is quite independent of the piston- l od screw. Handles attached to the syringe afford a firm grip of the instrument. A two-way cock (fig. 19) attached to the nozzle allows the syringe to he refilled without disturbing the apparatus or unfasten- * Aimf. Anzo'g, nv. (1903) pp. 7-10 (7 figs.). ZOOLOGY, AND BOTANY MICROSCOPY, ETC. HO mg the parts. A piece of tubing is slipped over the joins of the cannula and nozzle. This pressure-sheath is capable of resisting the pressure of Fig. 19. two atmospheres, and prevents the cannula from becoming detached from the syringe during manipulation. The illustrations show the syringe (fig. 20), the two-way cock (fig. 19), and the working arrangement (fig. 18). Vital and Supravital Granule Staining.* J. Arnold has studied the grannies in epithelial, endothelial and connective-tissue cells, mast- zellen, leucocytes, etc. Employing the vital method, he either sprinkles the tissue to be examined, e.g. the mesentery, with neutral-red solution, or dusts it with the same substance in powder. If the supravital method is fol- lowed, the tissues taken fresh from the animal are placed at once in normal saline solution, con- taining either *01 to - 1 p.c. neutral-red or •0005 p.c. methylen-blue, as the case may be. The granules appear in 10 to 20 minutes. In the epithelium of the frog's bladder he finds a perinuclear arrangement of granules, which he thinks might easily be mistaken for karyo- kinetic figures. He has compared the effects of vital with those of supravital staining in the case of the tongue of the frog, and finds them identical. The author is of opinion that cell-granules are concerned in the elaboration of fat, iron and bile pigment. Naphthol-Blue as a Reagent for Bacterial Fat.f — A. Meyer, in order to demonstrate this staining reaction, uses organisms known by accurate research to be rich in fat and destitute of volutin, e.g. B. megatherium. He mixes a Fig. 20. * Anat. Anzeig., sxiv. (1903) pp. 1-6. t Centralbl. Bakt. 1" Abt. Orig., xxxiv. (1903) pp. 578-9. 120 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RLSEARCHEiS RELATING TO a drop of a filtered 1 p.c. solution of diniethyl-paramethylendiainin (base) on a slide with a trace of a colony of the organism, and then adds to it a single loopful of a solution of a naphthol in 1 p.c. NaOH. If the preparation is examined after a minute the fat granules or drops are found to be stained dark blue. They are decolorised, however, with 1 p.c. H 2 S0 4 . To show that this reaction is not due to volutin, he uses B. alvei, an organism rich in this substance and fat-free. In this, the reaction did not take place. Gonococci Staining.* — A. Pappenheim advocates the use of a methyl-green and pyronin mixture for the staining of gonococci and for their differentiation from the cell nucleus. The action of this staining mixture depends on the aversion of methyl-green to bacteria, and on its affinity for the cell nucleus, whilst pyronin being a weak stain only affects the nucleus if added in excess. The result is a blue-green nucleus and red cocci. If it is desired to stain also the protoplasm of the cell, an acid stain, such as eosin, may be added to the mixture. Modification of Gram's Method.f — Nicolle has employed instead of the ordinary Oram's solution, one containing bromine 1 grm., potas- sium bromide 3 grm., water 100 grm. Over the former it has no advantage, but the results in each case appear to be identical. Method of Staining the Protozoal Parasites of the Blood.J — Laveran suggests the following modification of Giemsa's staining method § for the malaria parasite. Cover-glass preparations are stained for ten minutes with eosin (1 : 1000) 2 c.cm., distilled water 8 c.cm., azur (1 : 100) 1 c.cm. A drop of a 5 p.c. solution of tannin is then placed on the film and allowed to act for 2 to 3 minutes. The film is then washed and dried. The author finds this method useful when dealing with material which is not fresh. (5) Mounting-, including- Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c. Improved Mounting Clip.||— S. E. Dowdy has devised the following form of clip or press by which central pressure, which is completely under control, may be readily obtained (fig. 21). A B C is a stout piece of wire bent into a circle at right angles to the upright A B at C. D is a Fig. 21. screw, having at its end a flat circular metal button at E, which rotates, independently of the sere on the pin F. In use, a freshly prepared Canada balsam slide is placed on the circle C, and the screw L) rotated until the button or * Monatsbefte f. prakt. Derinat, April, 1903. fief., xxxiv. (1903) pp. 20-1. See also Centralbl. Bakt. l ,e Abt. t C. E Soc. Biol., No. 10, 1903. See also Centralbl. Bakt., xxxiv. (1903) pp. 78-9. X Op. cit.., No. 9. 1903. See also Centralbl. Bakt. Ref., xxxiv. (1903) p. 78. § Centralbl. Bakt., xxxii. p. 307. || English Mechanic, lxxviii. (1T03) p. 337 (I fig.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, LTC. 121 pad E presses on the cover-glass. Direct downward pressure with- out displacement of the cover is then attained by further rotation of the screw. G ribbon, W.— Mounting Clip. English Mechanic, lxxviii. (1904) p. 491 (I fig.). Vi Li, ag 10. — Modern Mounting Methods. Tom. cit., p. 490. (6) Miscellaneous. Waterproof Cement for Glass.* — The following preparations, which are unaffected by water, will be found suitable for cementing glass, repairing troughs, etc. : — ■ (1) Dissolve 5 to 10 parts gelatin in 100 parts of water ; add 10 p.c. of saturated bichromate of potassium solution ; mix thoroughly and keep in a dark place. Af ter using the cement the articles are exposed to sun- light, by the action of which the medium is rendered unaffected by water. (2) Quicklime, 1 parts ; litharge, 6 parts ; linseed-oil varnish, 1 part. Mounting Medium Bottle. f — S. E. Dowdy gives the following directions for fitting up a bottle for holding balsam. Obtain a 1 oz. or I5 oz. wide-mouthed metal screw-stoppered bottle, and bore a circular hole through the lid large enough for a thin glass rod to pass through with plenty of room to spare. Thread the rod on a medium sized cork several diameters larger than the hole in the metal lid, and the thing is finished. Pour the balsam into the bottle, after removing the lid. The length of the rod can be easily altered to suit the depth of the medium. Gelatin Plates as Substitute for Glass Light-filters. $ — K. Die- derichs describes a procedure for making light-filters for microscopical and photomicrographical purposes. A solution of the best gelatin, such as is used for making dry plates, is made in the usual way, the propor- tion to the water being as 1 to 200. To the filtered solution 3 c.cm. of 1 to 50 aqueous solution of alum are added. The films are made by pouring the gelatin on a glass plate placed on a levelling stand. When quite dry the gelatin is overlaid with a film of collodion stained with some anilin dye. Red plates may be made as follows : — Dissolve (1) 2 grm. aurantia in 40 c.cm. absolute alcohol, (2) 5 grm. rose Bengal in 20 c.cm. methyl alcohol. Then mix 20 c.cm. of (1) with 10 c.cm. of (2), and add 90 c.cm. of 4 p.c. collodion. Yellow plates can be made by adding 20 c.cm. of a saturated alcoholic solution of aurantia to 80 c.cm. 4 p.c. collodion. The gelatin plates may be doubled so as to strengthen the film, or one may be placed on either side of the coloured layer. Method of taking Internal Casts of Foraminifera.§— H. J. Quilter obtains perfect specimens by the following method. The shells having been cleaned by boiling in caustic potash, in order to remove all traces * Scientific American. See Knowledge, xxvi. (1903) p. 285. t English Mechanic, lxxviii. (1903) p. 401 (1 fig.). t Zeitsch. angew. Mikr., ix. (1903) pp. 197-8. § Journ. Quokett Micr. Club, viii. (1903) pp. 551-2. 122 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO of sarcode, arc soaked in benzole to extract most of the air and prepare the surface of the shell for the was. They are then transferred to melted paraffin wax, the wax being cooled and heated several times in order to expel the air. After the air-bubbles have disappeared a little melted wax is put on the centre of a slide placed on a warm stage. To the melted wax the shells are transferred, and arranged so that there is a clear space around each. The slide is then allowed to cool. When the wax has become hard the wax above and around the shells is removed by means of a brush dipped in benzole. After this the preparations are brushed with soap and water, and then immersed in a beaker filled with water. To this hydrochloric acid is added until effervescence takes place. When effervescence ceases the slide is washed, dried and mounted. Silicate of Soda (Water Glass) as an Injection Medium for Macroscopic Preparations.* — S. Jachtchinsky recommends a saturated solution of silicate of soda, to which is added a little powdered chalk stained with cinnabar or ultramarine, for injecting the vascular system of animals. The advantages claimed are that it is used cold, does not set too quickly, does not block the syringe, has no disagreeable odour, and when once dry the preparations keep excellently. New Small Shaking Apparatus.f— H. Zikes has devised the fol- lowing shaking apparatus for use in fermentation work (fig. 22). A Fig. 22. steel bar a h is supported at each end by a rigid metal stand. From this bar hangs the shaking trough c d by two short brass rods. These rods can glide on the steel bar and are firmly joined to a pushing rod, which by means of a projecting end / is able to move the trough to and fro in one direction. This projecting end articulates with a connect- ing rod, through which the movement is given by means of a turbine or electro-motor. The shaking trough is a half cylinder, closed at the ends, open at the top, and having a flap along one of its sides. The fixing of the vessel to be shaken is accomplished by means of a steel peg attached to the flap on one side, and fitting into one of a series of holes on the other, according to the size of the vessel. Bacteriological Tests for Show Butters.:}: — D. Houston, in a bacteriological examination of butters exhibited at the winter show of the Royal Dublin Society, employed the following method : • 1 grm. of * Anat. Anzeicr., xxiv. (1903) pp. 204-5. t -entralbl. Bakt., 2" Abt., xi. (1903) pp. 107-8 (1 fig.). \ Proc. R<>y. Dublin Soc, i. CI 902) pp. 179 88. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 123 the butter sample was placed in 10 c.crn. sterile water and kept at 25° C. This was then thoroughly mixed and allowed to cool. The fat having separated, "1 c.crn. was taken and mixed with nutrient gelatin, usually 2 p.c. lactose gelatin, and plated out in the usual way. The colonies were then counted, and subcultures made in different media. For the more ready estimation of gas-forming organisms, the solidified inoculated gelatin in the Petri dish was covered with a thin layer of sterile gelatin. The little gas-bubbles were then easily seen. The author found that undesirable flavours and aromas were in most cases due to the action of micro-organisms, working either in the ripening cream or in the made-up butter. Such organisms may be either bacteria, yeasts or moulds. A good-flavoured butter containing undesirable contaminations will soon become objectionable. The bacteriological tests were not found to agree with the judge's awards. Metallography, etc. Dichroiscope.*— This instrument (fig. 23), made by Swift & Son, is for the accurate comparison of the different colours of dichroic minerals. It is extremely useful for distinguishing coloured gems from glass imitations. Fig. 23. Penological Examination of Paving Sets.f — J. Joly gives the following method for determining the proportions of hard and soft constituents in rock. The thin rock-section is placed in the Microscope, and using a low power and low eye-piece the image of the field is pro- jected into a ground-glass screen above the eye-piece, any of the usual photographic apparatus being used. The ground glass is turned rough side up. Upon this is placed a transparent divided scale prepared as follows. A piece of logarithmic paper (divided to square millimetres, or square tenths of inches) is placed in contact with a sensitive plate in a photographic printing frame, and printed off by contact in the usual manner. The result is a negative, having the divisions appearing as clear lines on a dark background. This negative may be used, or a positive printed from it. The transparent divided scale is placed face downwards upon the ground-glass. We now have an image of the field traversed by the lines upon the scale. On the back of this scale, the outline of any particular constituent is traced by an ordinary writing pen and ink. This done, the divided plate is lifted off, and holding it up to the light the number of square millimetres, or square centimetres, are estimated as contained within the ink outlines. The whole circular * Swift's Catalogue, 1901, p. 40. t Proc. Roy. Dublin Sop., x. (1903) pp. C2-92 (4 pie.). 124 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO area of the field in square centimetres is — — ; hence the area occupied by the mineral can be estimated as a percentage of the area of the field. This is done for several fields, and an average taken. In most cases this method is quite accurate, but in exceptional instances, e.g. where mica plates appear edge-on in the field, certain allowances mnst be made, otherwise the quantity of the constituent would b2 underestimated. Microscopic Study of the Prehistoric Bronzes of the Charente.* M. G. Chesneau has microscopically examined the metal of two pre- historic bronze axe-heads. One head was provided with a socket ; the other merely heeled. It is admitted that the former is the more recent type of weapon. Micrographic analysis reveals that, at any rate in the Charente district, axes were used rough from the mould at the beginning of the Bronze Age, but that later on the methods of manufacture were improved, and the axe, after casting, was submitted to numerous re- heatings and hammerings at high temperatures to increase the hardness of the material. Surface Structure of Solids.f — G. T. Beilby seems to succeed in proving the following important propositions by means of his series of photomicrographs of metallic films : (1) The operations of cutting, filing, grinding or polishing, produce on the surface of solids a thin film, which is in many respects essentially different to the general body underneath it. (2) This surface film results from a certain mobility, which is con- ferred on a thin layer of molecules by the tool or polishing agent moving over the surface. (3) While it is in the mobile condition, the film of solid molecules behaves like a liquid, and is subject to the action of surface tension. (4) If these propositions are established it will follow that a truly polished surface is one in which, for a certain minute depth, the sub- stance has been liquefied and then smoothed by the action of surface tension. (5) Heat and solvents can confer on the molecules of solids sufficient mobility to enable their films or other minute portions of the solid to behave like a liquid. (6) In the aggregation of solids from their molecules there is a certain size of the aggregate up to which its form is controlled by surface tension, and only after this point is passed can crystallic force come into play. (7) The metals are the most opaque bodies we know, but their substance is nevertheless intrinsically transparent. (8) The " spicular " appearance frequently to be seen by the Micro- scope on the surface of metals, and other solids under obliquely- reflected light is due to a granular texture in the thin translucent film with which the surface is covered. (9) This granular texture results wholly or in part from the action of surface tension on the surface layer of molecules, while it is in the mobile condition. * Comples Rendus, cxxxvii. (1903) pp. 930-2 (2 figs.). f Third Hunter Memorial Leeturo, G! isj^ow, 1903, 55 pp., 42 pliotomicros. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 125 Contributions to the Study of Alloys of Aluminium and Silicon.* Vigouroux and Arrivault find that |the lack of durability often met with in vessels made of commercial aluminium is due to the presence of minute crystals of silicon, or of the eutectic silicon alloy. The two elements act as the poles of a battery, and set up rapid corrosion. Primary and Secondary Devitrification in Glassy Igneous Rocks.f T. G. Bonney and J. Parkinson point out analogies between these phenomena and those observed in the micro-chemistry of alloys. Just as important changes take place after solidification in copper-tin alloys, so that the structures and compounds produced at earlier stages of con- solidation disappear, to be replaced by later products ; so not improbably similar changes would be found to have taken place in many rocks. Metallography of Nickel Steels.* — L. Cuillet has made a very com- plete set of observations on steels containing nickel varying in amount from zero to 90 p.c. The observations included : — (1) Microstructure of cast steels. (2) Microstructure of quenched steels. (3) Microstructure of reheated steels. (4) Microstructure of cold-worked steels. (5) Microstructure of steels cooled below atmo- spheric temperature. (6) Cementation and decarbonisation of nickel steels. (7) Research on the regeneration of quenched steels. (8) Con- elusions. His conclusions are that the constituents of nickel steel are : — (1) Ferrite, pearlite, and, of course, troostite and sorbite. (2) Martensite. (3) Acicular crystals, which appear after etching, some- times white, sometimes black, although the reason for this phenomena is not known. (4) Polyhedric grains, undoubtedly corresponding to Mr. Osmond's iron. The acicular crystals are probably hardenite, another form of martensite. Ashe, A. — Photography of Cavities in Minerals and the Determination of the Con- densation Points of the Enclosed Gases. Joum. Quekett Micro. Club, viii. (1903) pp. 545-S (1 pi.). ISeck, W. T. — Preparation of Samples for Microscopic Analysis, as followed by the "Westinghouse Ele trie and Manufacturing Company. l'roc. of Engineers' Soc. of Western Pennsylvania, Dec. 1902. Metalhgraphist, vi. (Oct. 1903) pp. 320-2. Lac, F. C. — Tests on Finishing and Annealing Heats. Sparks from the Anvil, Oct. 1902. Melallographist, vi. (Oct. 1903) pp. 322-7 (6 figs.)- Wood worth, J. V.— Hardening, Tempering^ Annealing, and Forging of Steel. [Favourably reviewed by J. O. Arnold in Nature, lxix. No. 1780 (Dec. 10, 1903) p. 124.] Constable & Co., 2S8 pp. * Proces-Verbaux des Seances de la Soc. des Sciences de Bordeaux, 1901-2, pp. 20-3, 3 plates f 6 pliotomicos. t Quart. Joum. Geol. Soc, lix. (Nov. 1903) pp. 428-44, 1 plate of 6 photomieros. j Bull, de la Soc. d' Encouragement, May 31. 1903; Metal lograpbist, vi. (Oct. 1903) pp. 274-302 (40 figs.). 12C PROCEEDINGS OE THE SOCIETY. MEETING Held on the IGth of December, 1903, at 20 Hanover Square, W. Dr. Henry Woodavard, F.R.S., President, in the Chair. The Minutes of the Meeting of the 18th of November, 1903, were read and confirmed, and were signed by the President. Mr. Vezey said that having been one of those Fellows of the Society who attended at the Natural History Museum by invitation of the President, he should like to take the opportunity of thanking Dr. Woodward, on behalf of himself and of the other members of the party, for the very interesting explanations which were given to them of the Fossil Mammalia on Saturday November 28, and of the Fossil Reptiles on the Saturday following. The descriptions of the specimens in each case were given in a particularly clear and interesting manner, and he thought they ought to express their thanks for the trouble taken by Dr. Woodward on these occasions. Mr. Wesche said he should like to join Mr. Vezey in thankimr the President for his kindness and courtesy. He had greatly enjoyed Dr. Woodward's demonstration, and could only say that their President had given them, in the short time at his disposal, as much information as it would take them a week of hard reading to acquire ; and even then, speaking personally, Mr. Wesche doubted if he would have understood it as well. The President said he was glad to know that these visits had given pleasure to those who responded to his invitation, and only regretted that more persons had not been able to attend. Unfortunately, on the second occasion a pitchy darkness prevailed, so that he feared it was for the most part necessary to accept his descriptions of objects which they were scarcely able to see. He hoped, however, that as the new year advanced, they should be able to arrange for some further meetings — under more favourable atmospheric conditions. The List of Donations to the Society, exclusive of exchanges and reprints, received since the last Meeting, was read, and the thanks of the Society were voted to the Donors. Abbe, Gesammelte Abbandlun^en. Band I., Abhandlungenl Th n j,r -L iiber die Theorie des Mikrosknps. (8vo, Jena, 1904) . . . . / ine l umslier - Herdman, W. A., Report on tbe Pearl Oyster Fisheries of tbel „,, r> 7 a • , GulfofManakr. (4to, London, 1903) ^ The Royal Society. PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 127 Mr. F. W. Watson Baker said that he had brought for exhibition a series of sixteen specimens illustrating the development of an Ascidian. A card describing the specific object shown was placed beside each Microscope, so that no detailed description would be further necessary ; but he miglit mention briefly that the series originated as follows. Two simple Ascidians of the same species were under observation in a small dish ; one was observed to eject a number of ova, and in about one minute the second Ascidian discharged some spermatozoa, and fertilised them : then the process of development proceeded, as illustrated in the specimens exhibited. The specimens had been seen by well-known experts in such matters, and as they had considered them to be an exceedingly complete and valuable series, it had been thought worth while to bring them for exhibition before the Fellows of the Society. The President expressed his sense of the indebtedness of the Society to Mr. Watson Baker for his extremely interesting exhibition, and also proposed that their thanks should be voted to Messrs. Watson and Sons for their kindness in lending the Microscopes under which the objects were shown. The thanks of the Meeting were unanimously voted to Mr. Watson Baker and to Messrs. Watson and Sons. Dr. G. J. Hinde, F.R.S., then read his paper ' On the Structure and Affinities of the Genus Porosplmra,'' which he illustrated by dia- grams, and by the exhibition of numerous specimens, a large number of which he had found in his garden at Croydon, where they had no doubt been weathered out of the Chalk, and were now commingled in the thin layer of surface soil overlying the Chalk. The President said it would be unnecessary to ask the Fellows present to return their thanks to Dr. Hinde — as they had done so already— for his very interesting communication, which was in itself an object lesson on the way in which a subject of that kind should be approached. He had worked out the structure of Porosphsera from materials which, though very abundant, did not appear to have been carefully studied by anyone who had hitherto taken it up ; they all seemed to have been satisfied with noticing the mere external appearance. Long before Mr. Worthington Smith took up the subject of Coscino- pora in the Bedford Gravels, Mr. Read brought to Prof. Owen a mass of these beads which he had picked out of the gravel in close proximity to a number of flint implements ; and Mr. Wyatt also found a large number of these specimens, which were still preserved in the geological collection. The President also thought that his own father, Mr. Samuel Woodward, was one of the earliest to notice Coscinopora, as he had figured them in his Geology of Norfolk, as far back as 1833, and might possibly even have antedated Phillips. Mr. D. J. Scourfield asked whether it was known what was the special function of the radial canals, and how was the water supposed to circulate in these curious organisms ? Dr. Hinde in reply, said that Phillips named these forms in 1829 ; and that Mr. S. Woodward in 1833 adopted Phillips' names for the sirao fossils. He believed the radial canals were excurrent in function ; 128 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. there were a number of small apertures occurring between the spicules of the fibres through which the water may possibly have entered, and then found its way out through the radial canals. He desired to express his thanks to the Fellows of the Society for the attention which they had given to what he feared must have been a very dry subject. The thanks of the Society were cordially voted to Dr. Hinde for his communication. The Secretary reminded the Fellows that their next Meeting, on January 20th, would be the Anniversary Meeting of the Society, at which the Officers and Council for the ensuing year would have to be elected. He therefore read the following list of nominations by the Council, to be submitted for election by the Fellows at the Annual Meeting;. President— Dr. D. H. Scott. Vice-Presidents— Messrs. A. D. Michael, E. M. Nelson, H. G. Plimmer, and Dr. Hy. Woodward. Treasurer — Mr. Yezey. Secretaries — Bcv. Dr. Dallinger and Dr. Hebb. Council — Messrs. J. M. Allen, Wynne E. Baxter, C. Beck, Bev. E. Carr, Mr. A. N. Disney, Dr. J. W. H. Eyre, Messrs. J. W. Gordon, G. C. Karop, Bt. Hon. Sir Ford North, Messrs. T. H. Powell, P. E. Badley, and C. F. Bousselet. Librarian — Mr. Badley. Curator — Mr. Bousselet. The Secretary also announced that Mr. W. E. Baxter had been appointed Auditor on behalf of the Council, and invited the Fellows present to elect an Auditor to act on behalf of themselves. Mr. J. M. Offord thereupon proposed Mr. Chas. L. dirties as Auditor, and this having been seconded by Mr. Ersser, was put to the Meeting and unanimously carried. It was further announced that the Booms of the Society would be closed from December 24th to January 2nd inclusive. The President said that he hoped to take as the subject of his Address at the next Meeting, " The Vertebrate Forms of Life," — in con- tinuation of his subject of the previous year. The following Instruments, Objects, etc., were exhibited : — Mr. F. W. Watson Baker :— Sixteen slides illustrating the de- velopment of an Ascidian : (1) The fertilised ovum ; (2) after 30 minutes, segmentation ; (3) 1 hour ; (4) 1 hour 35 mins. ; (5) 2 hours ; (6) 2 hours 25 mins. ; (7) 3 hours ; (8) 3 hours 40 mins. ; (9) 5 hours 55 mins. ; (10) 10 hours 25 mins. ; (11) 14 hours 15 mins. ; (12) 20 hours; (13) 25 hours 15 mins.; (14) 49 hours; (15) 73 hours ; (16) 10 days, fixing stage. Dr. George J. Hinde : — Specimens of Fossil Calcisponges belonging to the genus Porosphaera, from the English Chalk : Porosphaera globu- Jaris Phill. sp., Upper Chalk, Gravesend, young specimens ; P.globu- PKOCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 129 laris, Upper Chalk, South Croydon, section showing skeleton spicules ; P. globidaris Phill. sp., Upper Chalk, Sidcup, Kent, young specimen preserved in Flint ; P. pileolus, Upper Chalk, zone of Micraster cor- anguinvm, South Croydon, vertical section showing skeleton spicule ; section of Tertiary Calcisponge, Plecironinia Halli H., Eocene Tertiary, Moorabool, Victoria, Australia : for comparison with Porosphaera and section of recent Calcisponge, Petrostroma Sclmhei, Doderlein, Sagamai Bay, Japan, also for comparison with Porosphsera. New Fellows. — The following were elected Ordinary Fellows : — Messrs. A. P. W. Heupt, and W. A. Riley. ANNIVERSARY MEETING. Held on the 20th of January, 1904, at 20 Hanover Square, W. Dr. Henry Woodward, F.R.S., Etc., President, in the Chair. The Minutes of the Ordinary Meeting of the 16th of December, 1903, were read and confirmed, and were signed by the President. The President having appointed Mr. Rheinberg and Mr. Taverner to act as Scrutineers, the ballot for Officers and Council for the ensuing year was proceeded with. The List of Donations received since the last Meeting (exclusive of exchanges and reprints), was read, and the thanks of the Society were voted to the donors. From Michelsen, A. A., Light Waves and their Uses. (8vo, London, j The University 1903) "" / of Chicago Press. Abbe, Ernst, Gesammelte Abhandlungen. Erster Bd. Abhand- j^ ggr< q^ ^eiss lungen iiber die Theorie deB Mikroskops. (8vo, Jena, 1904) / Mr. C. F. Rousselet exhibited an old form of Microscope by Plossl of Vienna, which had been sent to the Society on approval, and read a full description of the instrument. The thanks of the Meeting were unanimously voted to Mr. Rousselet for his communication. Feb. 17th, 1904 K 130 PKOCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. The Scrutineers having handed in the result of the ballot, the President declared the following gentlemen to have been elected as the Officers and Council of the Society for the ensuing year. President— DuMnfield Henry Scott, M.A. Ph.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. Vice-Presidents— A. D. Michael, F.L.S. ; E. M. Nelson ; Henry Geo. Plimmer, F.L.S. ; Henry Woodward, LL.D. F.R.S. F.G.S. F.Z.S. Treasurer — J. J. Vezey. Secretaries— Rev. W. H. Dallinger, LL.D. D.Sc. D.C.L. F.R.S. F.L.S. F.Z.S ; R. G. Hebb, M.A. M.D. F.R.C.P. Other Members of Council — Jas. Mason Allen ; Wynne E. Baxter, J.P. F.G.S. F.R.G.S. ; Conrad Beck ; Rev. Edmund Carr, M.A. F.R.Met.S. ; A. N. Disney, M.A. B.Sc. ; J. W. H. Eyre, M.D. F.R.S. (Edin.) ; George C. Karop, M.R.C.S. ; The Rt. Hon. Sir Ford North, P.C. F.R.S. ; Thomas H. Powell ; Percy E. Radley ; Charles F. Rousselet. Librarian — Percy E. Radley. Curator — Charles F. Rousselet. The Secretary called attention to the fact that although at the last Meeting twelve Fellows had been nominated to serve on the Council, the names of eleven only appeared on the ballot papers. This was owing to one gentleman having found, since the last Meeting, that it would be inconvenient for him to attend, and having consequently withdrawn his name. They were, however, perfectly within their legal rights in electing only eleven on that occasion. The Report of the Council for the year 1003 was then read by the Secretary, as follows. REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR 1903. FELLOWS. Ordinary. — During the year 1003, 10 new Fellows have been elected, 15 have resigned, 9 have died, and have been removed from the list. Among those who have died are found the distinguished names of James Glaisher, President from 1865 to 1868 ; of Charles Thomas Hudson, President from 1888 to 1890 ; and of Rudolf Yirchow ; the two last being Honorary Fellows. The list of Fellows now contains the names of 422 Ordinary, 1 Corresponding, 44 Honorary, and 82 Ex-Officio Fellows, being a total of 540. THE JOURNAL. The papers communicated to the Society during the past year have fully maintained their previous high standard ; some indeed, notably those of Mr. J. W. Gordon, Dr. H. Siedentopf and Lord Rayleigh, being of unusual merit and importance. The Summary of Current Researches continues to be of the same merit as heretofore. PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 131 FINANCE. There is not much calling for special notice in reference to Finance during the past year. It is satisfactory to note an improvement in the amount received for admission fees, and a material increase under the head of Annual Subscriptions. This is partly owing to the more prompt payment of the Annual dues, and the Treasurer hopes Fellows will see the desirability of maintaining this improvement, as it greatly facilitates the financial arrangements of the Society. The sale of the Journal has somewhat fallen off in the past year, but the Council trusts it is only a temporary decline. The Journal for 11)03 compares most favourably with any of the preceding years, and as the editorial and abstracting staff receive very small remuneration for their services, the expenses of publication are reduced to the lowest possible figure. In spite of this, however, Fellows will observe that the cost of the Journal swallows up nearly the whole of the Annual Subscriptions. It is therefore imperative that the sale of the Journal outside the Society should be well kept up, otherwise its maintenance at its present high standard cannot be continued. Though some of the issues of the Journal during the past year have been of exceptional size, the cost of printing and illustrating has been kept within the ordinary limits. During the year a further investment in India 3 per cents, was made, consisting of the admission and compounding fees received in the previous year. The Treasurer has been enabled to keep a somewhat larger sum than usual on deposit during the year, which is a matter of great importance, as it is only by the strictest economy that the finances of the Society can be kept in a satisfactory condition. Instruments, Apparatus, Etc. The Instruments and Apparatus in the Society's Collection continue to be in good condition. With the consent of the Council two of our old Microscopes, Nos. 20a and 31 in the Catalogue, being duplicates, have been ex- changed with Messrs. Carl Zeiss of Jena, for two old German Micro scopes, types not yet represented in our Collection. During the past year, the following "additions have been made : — Feb. 18, 1903. — An old Microscope, with Apparatus. Presented by Mr. Frank Orfeur. April 15. — An Old Microscope by Dollond. Presented by Mr. Wynne E. Baxter. May 20. — An Early Compound Microscope, and an Old Microscope by Cary. Both presented by Mr. E. M. Nelson. June 17. — An Old Non-Achromatic Simple Microscope. Presented by Mr. E. M. Nelson. Oct. 21. — A Microscope by Negretti and Zambra, and Accessories, elonging to the late James Glaisher, F.R.S., a former President of the ociety. Presented by Dr. Glaisher. 132 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. Two Stage-Micrometers, supposed to have been ruled by Hugh. Powell. Presented by Mr. E. M. Nelson. Some slides belonging to the late Mr. James Glaisher, F.R.S. Presented by his son, Dr. Glaisher. LIBRARY. The Library is in good order, and every item catalogued up to the end of the year 1903. The attention of Fellows is called to the rules in regard to the length of time books may be kept, as great inconvenience is sometimes caused by their non-observance. VISITS TO THE BRITISH MUSEUM. On the initiative and by the invitation of the President, five visits have been paid to the Natural History Museum. In three of these a party of Fellows was conducted by the President through the Geological galleries, where Dr. Woodward described numerous specimens, and discoursed on the geological aspects of the Invertebrate,, Mammalia, and Reptilia. On the other occasions the parties visited the Botanical department under the guidance of Mr. Carruthers, and the Mineralogical under that of Mr. Fletcher. These visits were highly instructive, and much appreciated by those present, and should sufficient interest be evinced it may be anticipated that, by the kindness of Dr. Woodward and other gentlemen, further visits may be arranged for. The Treasurer read the Annual Statement of Account and Balance Sheet for l'J03, which had been audited and found correct. Mr. Marshall then moved, " That the Report and Balance Sheet now read be received and adopted, and that they be printed and circulated in the usual way." The motion, having been seconded by Mr. Gardner, was put to the Meeting by the President, and carried unanimously. Dr. E. J. Spitta said he should like to ask the Council if they would consider whether it would be possible to issue post-cards, to such Fellows who desired to have them, intimating the subjects to be brought before the Meetings of the Society a few days before the date of the Meeting. He thought, in common with some others, that they lost a great deal in consequence of the absence of such information, for everyone had his own tastes, and if they knew beforehand what was going to be discussed, Fellows interested in that special subject would attend the Meeting, and add to their general knowledge. He hoped, therefore, that the Council would kindly take the suggestion into consideration, and that they might be able to see the advisability of introducing the practice. It had been tried at the Royal Astronomical Society, and he believed at other learned societies, and found to be of great advantage. The only objection to it was the expense, but he thought this would not be a very serious matter, TROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 133 H CO . en ■* -H OS • i-H rt CO "+ 1 © ■—* c+} CO CD OS -"H co©©©i-hcoco — > co © M I— t t> CO © © CO 00 CO Ut CD 05 r-H f-H I— 1 --H r— I -HtN©cc'NeO'tir-~©© CN CO © i— I i— I CO CO CD i-H co be bo I to u o ^.2 § § p-« g.a s ~ .2 «, h3 3 Ph ~ ,3 o o Dh O O.T0 Co 00 CO <])HH cS to co co os -* ■* 00 I-H i— I © CO © i-h co tn tH i-H be a 3 -o < bo q is CO CO CM CD 3 0) Q so co i-H -a H CO bD _g co co ■ — i CD ri (U Q CO sh B 3 oj O Ch dW S -! a,™ o o o. W CD'S O O H i — i . ce.-S^i a a, 03 H 1) » <*« a °§1 J'S » - s.S'S.g.S. 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H-» O V <4-l ^- >~ O ^ s CO .2 X >H ■< tH « O O - « >■ -H p r-jO 1-9 a a •-" 03 CO ™ co ® -a -3 3-t3 ►2 « CO S5H-J (« . ;SO O TO -a a ^ © rH I-H © © I-H © ■- OS _a » o: © r-| lO © © £ JZ: 00 1— c & a "-+! © lO t~- © © CM 2- 2 © ,-H CO © © •O 3a CO ® co a «*• eo >~ cm •* CO F-H • • • • c+, — CD *• > : :-y » 5 • •s-S »h 03 cS co a . •« CO CO • Oh 03 a « r~\ h- 3 co u a ^ : O CD 00 (-00 , -t-» a° -a . t3'C a 3 <*> 00 co w • co 00 g Sft :-a -wCQ ^t« a . 3-3 r» 5> 44W * 5 • g-S ^ Nottingliam Corporation Stoc New South Wales Three and India Three per Cents. On Deposit at Union of Lond North British Railway .. .. ave examined the foregoing A Society ; we have also verifie -H © © © a. 134 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. as only a comparatively few persons outside London, who do not see the advertisements in the newspapers or the notices in the opticians' shop- windows, would need to be advised in this way. The Secretary reminded the speaker that the subjects of the papers and demonstrations to come before the next Meeting were duly notified in several journals, e.g. Nature, The Athenceum, The Standard, and others. A Fellow thought that any gentlemen who sent stamped and addressed post-cards to the Society for the purpose might have these filled in and posted to them, if they so desired. The President said that if this motion was offered as a suggestion to the Council, they would no doubt be very glad to take it into their considera- tion. He was of opinion that it would greatly conduce to the interest of the Meetings of the Society if the Fellows knew beforehand the nature of the papers to be brought before the Meeting. To send a notice to each individual member might, however, be beyond the capacity of the clerical staff ; the question of expense would also have to be considered. But in any case, he felt sure that the Council would carefully consider it. Sir Ford North did not think that they could dispose of the question at once, as no formal resolution could be put at this Meeting, but the motion might be treated as a request to the Council to take the matter into consideration. The expense could not be very much, and he thought the suggestion a desirable and useful one. The President then gave his Annual Address, taking as his subject ' The Evolution of Vertebrate Animals in Time,' but intimated that instead of giving it in extenso he intended merely to read the first few pages, and then to exhibit the slides which he had brought in illustra- tion, offering a brief description of each. The slides, to the number of about eighty, were then shown upon the screen, the special points of interest being pointed out. Mr. A. D. Michael said it was almost unnecessary for him — after the applause which had just subsided — to do so, but yet he rose with very great pleasure to propose a vote of thanks to the President for his admirable and most interesting Address, in which he had been carrying them through the Vertebrata in the same way as he took them through the Invertebrata at the Annual Meeting of the previous year. They had also to thank the President for his services to the Society during his whole term of office, and for the unfailing interest which he had taken in its affairs. He should like, therefore, to propose that their heartiest thanks be given to Dr. Woodward for his conduct in the Chair during the term for which he had occupied it, and for the great service he had rendered to the Society, and the extreme interest he had taken in it during his period of office. He w T as sure there was not a Fellow present who would not feel that they were losing a President who had filled that position admirably during a period which they would all remember with the greatest pleasure. Sir Ford North, on behalf of Dr. Braithwaite (who had been obliged to leave the Meeting earlier) had great pleasure in seconding the motion. PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 135 Mr. A. D. Michael said that as the President would be unable to put this motion to the Meeting, he had much pleasure in submitting that the best thanks of the Society be given to the President for his interesting and instructive Address, and for the great interest he had shown in the Society during his period of office. Carried unanimously. Mr. T. C. White said that a pleasant duty had been delegated to him, that of proposing that their best thanks be given to the Officers of the Society for their services during the past year. Having himself in former years gone all through the drudgery of office, he knew some- thing of what time and care were required to make things go smoothly. He need not particularise individuals, for they knew that all had worked well — indeed, they knew this so well, that it seemed hardly necessary to propose this vote of thanks to them. Mr. Webster having seconded the motion, it was put to the Meeting by the President, and unanimously carried. Mr. W. Wesche then moved that the cordial thanks of the Society be given to the Auditors and Scrutineers. Mr. J. J. Vezey had great pleasure in seconding this proposition, for certainly, as far as the auditors were concerned, he knew how much trouble had been taken and how carefully their work had been done. This also was put to the Meeting by the President, and carried unanimously. The President said that as they had been so kind as to accord him a vote of thanks, he must on his part be allowed to thank them for the kindness shown to him during the past two years. It had been a great pleasure to him to preside over such an amiable and kindly Society. He must further thank them for the honour they had done him in electing him as one of their Vice-Presidents. He hoped still to be able to render them some service in the future ; and if they should desire again to visit the Natural History Museum, he should be only too happy to conduct them round, and point out to them the xcellent work which was being carried on by the present staff, and he hoped they would be able to avail themselves of the offer at no distant date Mr. J. J. Vezey said Dr. Hebb had i ked him to respond on behalf of the Officers, and to thank the Fellows for the kind way in which they had acknowledged their services. It would, of course, be idle to say that the work done did not entail any" trouble, but he could say that it was work which they had done with a great deal of pleasure. The President then said it now only remained for him to ask Dr. Dukinfield H. Scott, F.R.S., to take the Chair, and to assure the Fellows that they had in their new President or. vho would be certain to do his best in the interests of the Society. Dr. D. H. Scott having taken the Chair, said it would be a poor return for their kindness if at that late hour of the evening he were to detain them with any remarks of his own ; but he could not take his seat without thanking them for the very great compliment paid to him, one which he especially appreciated, I cause this Society was the first scientific body he had ever joined ; and though he had not been able 136 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. very often to come to their meetings, he had been a constant reader of their Journal. He could promise them that he would do his best to further the interests of the Society, and he felt it a special honour to follow such a President as his friend Dr. Woodward. The following Objects, Instruments, etc., were exhibited : — The President, in illustration of his Address : — Table of strata giving, on an approximate scale, the relative thickness of the sedimentary deposits from the Archaean upwards, with the appearance in time of all the great groups of Vertebrata, Invertebrata, and Plants. Illustrations (more than eighty in number) were shown by means of the Epidiascope upon the screen. Commencing with Amphioxus, the Cyclostomi, and the minute denticles known as Conodonts, from the Cambrian and Silurian ; then illustrations of Ostracodermi, Pteraspis, Cephalaspis, etc. ; followed by the true fishes : commencing with the primitive shark CladoseJache, from the Upper Devonian of Ohio ; the Teleostomi, and other groups of early fishes with bony plates, enamelled scales, and generally a notochordal skeleton ; giving examples of the Crossopterygii and Actinopterygii. The Amphibia were represented in the Coal Measures by the Labyrinthodontia and other forms, whose remarkable skulls, teeth and skeletons were shown ; also the Caudata, illustrated by Crypto- branchus, and the Ecaudata by the tail-less modem Batrachians. Passing on to Eeptilia, Pariasaurus and other Anomodonts were shown, also the Plesiosaurs, Chelonia, and Ichthyosauria ; the flying Pterodactyls and terrestrial Dinosauria were likewise illustrated. The early Birds (Archjeornithes) Archceopteryx, Hesperornis, Ichthyornis, and the more modern Ratite or Struthious birds, and also the degenerate (carinate) Dodo, etc. Examples of the leading Mammalian types were next illustrated, as the Monotremes, Marsupials, Cetacea, Sirenia and Edentata ; and the leading examples of Ungulate quadrupeds, the Amblypoda, Proboscidea, Toxodontia, Perissodactyla, Artiodactyla, etc. Among special illustrations may be mentioned a carnivorous The- riodont Reptile from the Permian of Russia ; restorations of Arsinoi- therium Zitteli, a new Amblypod from Egypt ; and three ancestral forms of Elephant, viz. Meritherium, Palceomastodon and Tetrabelodon ; lastly, a beautiful slide, and an unpublished plate of Okapia Johnsoni were exhibited. Mr. C. P. Rousselet : — An Old Microscope by Plossl of Vienna. New Fellow. — Mr. Thomas John Davis was balloted for and duly elected a Fellow of the Society. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. APRIL 1904. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY. IV. — The President's Address: The Evolution of Vertebrate Animals in Time. By Dr. Henry Woodward, F.R.S. (Delivered January 20th, 1904.) In my Anniversary Address to you last year, I directed attention to what is known of the History of the great groups of the Invertebrata in past geological times, and I pointed out to you, that although we could not trace back the phylogeny of these to a common stem, yet we were able to show that every individual group whose appearance is recorded in the various sedimentary deposits, and can be traced upwards through successive ages, marks also the evolution of its progeny; some, like the giant Oak and Plane-tree, putting forth many wide-spreading branches ; others, like the Bamboo of the tropics, attaining great length with years, but no lateral expansion; some families, like the Trilobites, the Graptolites and the Eurypterida, reaching perfection in Palaeozoic times, and then disappearing ; whilst others, having put forth great vigour in the past, have left, like some ancient tree, but one living branch to tell of its past greatness. Before proceeding with my address to the Fellows of the Royal Microscopical Society, I must apologise to them in that I have for a second time diverted their thoughts from the field of the Micro- scope to the field of Nature ; but every apologist has his excuses also. Last year I spoke of many minute organisms (which I illus- trated on the screen), whose whole body would not fill the aperture of a Microscope. This year I propose to speak of Vertebrate animals, many of which are of such large size that one of them would easily fill April 20th, 1904. l 138 Transactions of the Society. this entire room to overflowing ; nevertheless their separate struc- tures, whether of bones, teeth, hairs, horns, feathers, or scales, as well as their blood-corpuscles and various tissues, have doubtless often attracted the investigation of our Fellows. I venture to think that an introduction to these animals and their ancestors in past times may not be so inappropriate as might at first sight appear, and that some slight account of them, as a whole, may even enhance the interest we may hereafter take in their minute struc- tures when brought to our notice under the Microscope. From the earliest Archaean rocks up to the Carboniferous, through a series of deposits more than fifteen miles in thickness, comprising Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian forma- tions, all are marine deposits, and in consequence yield scarcely any trace of other than marine organic remains. The first appearance, then, of Vertebrate life upon our earth must necessarily have been marine, or at least aquatic — in fact, in the form of fishes only. The first fishes were, however, without hardened skeletons, having a persistent notochoral, a condition of the spinal column characteristic of the embryo of most vertebrate animals, but only found to be persistent through life in the adult of a few groups of Fishes and Amphibia. The First Vertebrates. — The lowliest of these (forming the Leptocardii or Pharyngobranchii) is the " Lancelet " or Amphi- oxus — a minute animal, flattened in body and pointed at both ends, which has no hard parts whatever, only a membrano-cartilaginous skeleton without vertebra?, ribs, or jaws. The mouth in Amphioxus is furnished with cirri ; respiration is performed by gills enclosed in a branchial chamber ; and pul- sating vascular trunks serve instead of a heart. Having no hard parts to be preserved in a fossil state, we of course cannot claim for it great antiquity by reason of its remains having been met with in Palaeozoic strata ; nevertheless, its wide geographical distribution on the sandy coasts of the North Sea, of the Mediterranean, of South America, of the Indian Ocean, and other widely separated localities, justify us in considering it to be a very ancient and primitive,* as it undoubtedly is a most simple, form of vertebrate. In the next group (the Cyclostomi or Marsipobraxchii) are placed certain cylindrical vermiform fishes, without pectoral or pelvic fins, with a simple cartilaginous skeleton and persistent notochord. Eespiration is performed by means of a series of six * On similar grounds Prof. E. B. Poultou claims for the curious Arthropod Peripatus (which has not been found fossil, but has at present a most extensive terrestrial geographical range) a geological antiquity greater thau any other form of life we are acquainted with, " at least twice as remote as the earliest known Cambrian fossil." Presidential Address (Zoology), British Association, Liverpool, 1896. The President's Address. By Dr. H. Woodward. 139 or seven pairs of pouch-like gills ; the mouth is circular, or semi- circular and suctorial, but there are no jaws, and the teeth are arranged around the buccal cavity. To this order belong the " Lamprey " and the " Hag-fish." The " Lamprey " (Petromyzon) is marine, but ascends rivers to spawn. The " Hag-fish " {Myxiiie) has similar habits. Its teeth are numerous, minute and serrated ; it lives attached, parasitic, on other fishes, and even in some instances enters their body-cavity. The species have a very wide geographical distribution in the North Atlantic, the shores of Japan, Straits of Magellan, the North Sea, Norwegian fiords, the British shores, and many of our rivers, as the Thames, Severn, etc. The point of geological interest which they present to us is that, although the rest of the animal-structure is soft, or merely cartilaginous and incapable of conservation, their minute micro- scopic teeth of glistening chitinous consistence may readily have been preserved. Now certain minute bodies, like conical and serrated teeth, but of considerable variety of form, were discovered by Pander in the Silurian and Devonian rocks of Eussia, as long ago as 1856, and in 1875 by Prof. Newberry in North America ; in 1879, they were obtained by Dr. G. J. Hinde, P.E.S., in the Cambrian and Silurian rocks of Britain, North America, and of Sweden ; and later, both Prof. Newberry in America, and Prof. Pander in Eussia, have ex- pressed the opinion that these microscopic structures belong to Cyclostomatous fishes, like our modern Lamprey and Hag-fish, and were not referable to either Annelida or Mollusca. This opinion was also shared by the late Prof. Huxley, who examined a series submitted to him by Dr. G. J. Hinde. In 1894, Dr. E. H. Traquair described a remarkable fossil from the Old Eed Sandstone of Scotland, being the nearly complete skeleton of a small creature, about an inch in length, having a calcified skeleton, the general aspect of the skull resembling that of a recent Lamprey, with no evidence of jaws or separate ossifica- tions, but with well-calcified ring-vertebrae, and neural and hremal spines. A single species, named Pcdeeosponchjlus Gunni, has been found in the Caithness Flagstones near Thurso. Another primitive group, the Ostracodermi, appears in the Upper Silurian and Lower Devonian, and exhibits no trace of jaws or of a segmented axial skeleton or arches for the support of paired Hmbs, but median fins are present ; with no hard internal skeleton, and with the notochord persistent. The head and trunk are invested with a dermal armour, and in addition to the shield covering the head there is usually one covering the abdomen, and a ventral plate meeting the dorsal on l 2 1-40 Transactions of the Society. each side. The tail seems to have remained flexible. The plates- consist of three layers, an inner " nacreous " layer of lamellae, a thick middle one of polygonal cancellse, and an outer hard layer of vasodentine. The Ostracodermi comprise the Cyathaspis, Ptcraspis, Cephal- aspis, Pterichthys, Bothriolepis, and some others. The bodies of Pteraspis, Cephalaspis and Pterichthys, were covered with dermal enamelled scales or plates. They mimic in a singular manner the contemporary giant Crustaceans, the Eukypterida. Quite lately, a number of new forms have been discovered in the Upper Silurian of Lanarkshire, and described by Dr. E. H. Traquair. They are considered to be primitive Heterostraci, or Pteraspidian fishes, covered with a dermal armour of shagreen-like granules (LanarJcia spinosa), or an outline of plates with a central shield and a series of polygonal plates (Drepanaspis).* The Ostracodermi, as a group of early vertebrates, are quite extinct ; and their range in past time seems to have been very limited, namely, from the Upper Silurian to the Upper Devonian. If the Marsipobranchii of to-day (the " Lampreys " and the " Hag-fishes ") were really represented by the Cambrian Conodonts and the Old Eed Sandstone Palmospondylus, then these lowly vertebrates may claim as great a range in time as any of the Invertebrata ; but this point is not as yet definitely established. Pisces. — We have spoken of the preceding groups as Fishes, but they lack the important character of possessing a lower jaw, they also have only a notochordal skeleton, and they do not always possess paired appendages. True Fishes begin with the class Elasmobranchii, the most ancient of which are the sharks, which extend as far back in time as the Lower Devonian, the entire skeleton is cartilaginous, only the teeth and the periphery of the vertebras being calcified ; but in many species the primitive notochord is persistent ; the gills are not covered by an operculum, but are pouch-like, having distinct clefts on each side ; they have both median and paired fins, and the tail is heterocercal. Examples of Early Sharks have been discovered in a remarkable state of preservation in the Upper Devonian of Ohio, showing the complete outline of the fish with its fins and tail preserved. Although the jaws are cartilaginous the teeth in all are coated thickly with enamel and are well preserved. They also possess bony and enamelled dorsal spines, and microscopic shagreen dermal ossicles in the skin. This type is very persistent, and its remains are met with in almost every formation from the Devonian to the seas of the present clay. * Gcol. Mng, 1902, pp.289-291. The President's Address. By Dr. H. Woodward, 141 Another interesting order are the Dipnoi, or double-breathers, in which both the gills and the air-bladder, which serves the purpose of a lung, are present, and take part in respiration. The modern Lepidosiren of South America, the Protopterus of South African rivers, and the Ccratodus (or "Mud-fish") of the Australian rivers, are living examples of this type. Teeth, like those of the living Ceratodus, occur in the older "Secondary formations in both hemispheres, and similar teeth, known as Ctenodus, occur in the Carboniferous and Permian rocks. The true fishes, with well-developed paired fins and jaws, the €rossopterygii and the Actixopterygii, are characterised by the presence of external ganoine-coated bony plates, with a more or less notochordal skeleton, or only a thin bony tube to the vertebrae and a gelatinous centre. Others, like Platysomus, Dapedius and Lepidotus, had a com- pact dermal covering of thickly enamelled bony scales. Similarly-armoured fishes like Aspidorhynchus, from the Solen- hofen lithographic limestone, still exist, such as the bony pike of the American rivers. The great majority of the Fishes in Secondary and, Tertiary times, like our modern bony-framed fishes, were Teleostomi. Fishes with a complete bony skeleton, and in which the gills are but feebly separated, and open into an external cavity covered by a bony operculum, are, with few exceptions, homocercal tailed. With the exception of the Dipnoi, all the Fishes are purely aquatic in their habits, and breathe simply by gills, and cannot sustain life for any long period out of the water. Amphibia. — The earliest vertebrates which show by the arrange- ment of the nares that they breathe by means of lungs (at least in the adult state) belong to the Amphibia. This group of animals are distinguished from true reptiles by the fact that the young undergo certain metamorphoses after leaving the egg. At this early stage of their existence they breathe by means of external gills, which are occasionally retained along with internal lungs in the adult animal, and one or more pairs of limbs may be wanting. When present, they have the same bones as in the limbs of higher animals ; they are never converted into fins ; the skull has two occipital condyles ; the mandible articulates directly with the skull ; teeth are commonly present on the premaxilla, the maxilla, the vomer, and the dentary bone of the mandible ; they are usually achylosed to the bone, and are simple in structure, but more complex in Ldbyrinthodon ; only two vertebrae are coalesced to form the sacrum ; sometimes the backbone is unossified, forming a mere ring of bone, the interior being gelatinous, a form of backbone called notochordal. The earliest of these Amphibians are found in the Coal Measures, Lsuch as Anthracosaurus, represented by Zoxomma, and Archegosaurus. 142 Transactions of the Society . These forms are represented by Cryptobranclms, in the Miocene of Switzerland, and by the gigantic salamander of Cliina and Japan, now living. The tail-less Batkachia, Frogs and Toads, do not make their appearance until Tertiary times. All these forms appear to have undergone regular metamorphoses in the young state after leaving the egg. Some of those in the Coal Period, and especially in the Permian, attained to a very large size, and had thick bony plates covering the head. The head varies in form from a broadly semicircular shape in Branchiosaurus,, to a more elongated form in Loxomma and Archegosaurus ; the skull in Mastodonsaurus giganteus, from the Keuper of Wiirtem- berg, measured a yard in length and was broad in proportion. Like their modern representatives at the present day, the Amphibia were all of aquatic habits, although air-breathing in the adult ; but they were also capable of progression upon the land — - they represent, therefore, the first terrestrial vertebrates. Eepresentatives of both the tailed and tail-less forms, the Newts and Salamanders, and the Progs and Toads, still survive, although greatly reduced in .size. The skeleton in the Amphibia presents a combination of cha- racters intermediate between the lowest Mammals and certain of the Anomodont reptiles. EEPTILIA. — Of the extinct forms of Eeptiles, the Anomo- dontia are certainly the most remarkable, as they are among the most recent discoveries of geological science. They derive their name from the varied modification of their dentition, so unusual a character among Eeptiles, in which the teeth are, most generally, all of one pattern and size. They were all land animals, with limbs adapted to habitually support the body ; some were of very massive build, others were of much more light and agile form. One of the most striking of the former of these is the Paria- saurus Bainii, from the Trias formation of Cape Colony : the teeth are close set, and fused with the bone ; they resemble those of the Iguanodon in being worn down on their summits, as if applied to the mastication of vegetable food ; fifteen or sixteen are closely set on each side of both the upper and lower jaws ; they are very uniform in character, there being no means by which to separate- the incisors or canines from the premolars or molars ; the palate also bears several rows of small teeth ; the entire animal measures fully nine feet in length, and its skull and jaws closely resemble those of the short-headed Labyrinthodont Batrachia ; while the surface of the skull was completely covered by a bony roof sculptured on the surface, like the cranial plates in many Labyrinthodonts and Crocodilia. One of the most strange Ehynchocephalian reptiles is the Dimetrodon incisivus from the Permian of Texas, remarkable for The President's Address. By Dr. H. Woodward. 143 the extraordinary dorsal fin supported upon bony prolongations from the dorsal spines oi' the backbone ; the body is Crocodilian in aspect; the legs were short, the jaws armed with exceedingly sharply pointed teeth, and may have served for the purpose of preying upon fish and other aquatic animals. Passing over a number of forms, Dicynodontia, etc., with variously modified teeth and skulls, we come to the division Thekiodontia, remarkable for the resemblance of the skull to that of a carnivorous mammal {Galesaurus, JElurosaurus), and the differ- entiation of the marginal teeth (so far as shape is concerned) into incisors, canines and molars. Only one occipital condyle, how- ever, articulates the skull to the vertebral column. So far as we are able to judge by a knowledge of recent reptiles, they exhibit an advance upon the Amphibia, not only in being provided with a foetal envelope, known as the amnion, but also by breathing by lungs throughout life, and never possessing branchia at any stage. The remarkable form Tritylodon, originally considered by Owen to be a mammal, has now been referred to the Theriodontia. In nearly all these forms the pineal foramen can be distinctly seen ; they have also anterior nares. The Saukopterygia {Plesiosauria) form another primitive group of reptiles, in which the bones of the skull in the temporal region contract into a single broad zygomatic arch. Commencing with small amplnbious animals in the Trias, they are represented by larger, truly aquatic forms through the whole of the Secondary period. Although these larger forms (the Plesiosauria). lived wholly in the open sea, they retained their two pairs of pentadactyle limbs, and their long-neck and lizard-like form, in contradistinction to the Ichthyopterygia, which have an extremely shortened neck, and are quite fish-like in external shape. They have a pineal foramen, and exhibit two large supra-temporal vacuities on the skull ; the conical teeth form a single series on the margin of the jaws, and they have distinct sockets. In the small Triassic form Lariosaurus, which preceded them, and was probably ancestrally connected, the limbs are elongated and slender, with five digits, and the normal number of phalanges. In the later genera they are modified as paddles, with shortened fore- and hind-limb, but still with only five digits present ; but these are lengthened by the addition of supernumerary phalanges, and are destitute of claws. They have a system of well-developed ventral ribs, and the skin appears to have been destitute of armour. The Chelonia may possibly have been developed from a highly modified form of Plesiosaurian. The earliest known Chelonian is met with in the Trias, and differs in no very important degree from the later forms. They have a very wide geological and geographical range. The genus Testudo, which is represented by many large living species, is found fossil in the Siwalik Hills of India and in 144 Transactions of the Society. Madagascar, whilst living examples survive in the Mauritius, Bourbon, and many other small islands of the Indian Ocean, and on Galapagos Island. Gigantic marine turtles with extremely degenerate shells, like the modern leathery turtle, occur fossil in the Eocene of Europe and of America, and living in the West Indies. One living sub- order of Chelonia, the Pleuroclira, is confined to the Southern Hemisphere, although its fossil remains have been discovered in Europe and North America. The genus Miolania has been found in the Pleistocene deposits of Queensland, and has also been obtained from Lord Howe Island, 400 miles distant from the Australian coast. Quite recently Dr. Moreno has obtained the same genus (only specifically distinct) in the Tertiary deposits of Argentina, South America. The Ichthyopterygia, or fish-limbed reptiles, make their first appearance in the Trias, range throughout the Mesozoic, with little structural modification, and disappear in the Chalk. In outward form they must have closely resembled the Cetacean mammals of the present day, such as the dolphin, with its large head, long rostrum, numerous and uniform teeth, and no apparent neck. Their hind limbs have never (unlike the Cetacea) quite disappeared, although sometimes extremely reduced in size ; and the caudal fin was expanded in a vertical plane, as in fishes, not in a horizontal plane, as in the Cetacea. It is possible that the Ichthyopterygia were originally derived from land animals, as the earliest Triassic forms show a slightly elongated character in the radius and ulna, and the teeth are in less uniform series than those from the Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks — but we know nothing of their terrestrial ancestors. The vertical folding of the walls of the conical teeth is only paralleled by that observed in many Labyrinthodonts ; their short biconcave vertebral centra may also best be compared with Mastodonsaurus. Another remarkable group of Beptiles having its origin in the Trias, called the Khynchocephalia (beak-headed), in allusion to the typical beak-shaped rostrum of several of the genera, has a single representative at the present day in the small lizard-like Sphenodon or Hatteria, found on certain small islands off New Zealand. The two best known genera in the Permian are Palceohatteria, a long- tailed-lizard-like reptile of small size, and Protorosaurus, a large reptile from the Upper Permian ; but the British form of Hypcro- dapedon Gordoni from the Trias of Elgin, and a larger species from the Trias of Central India, with Rhynchosaurus from the Trias of Shropshire, and another form from Bavaria, make up a most remarkable and all but extinct group. The Squamata, or Scaled Animals, represented by the Lizards and Snakes, are, comparatively speaking, of recent origin, only going back to the Cretaceous period ; one of the earliest of these The President's Address. By Dr. H. Woodward. 145 is a small aquatic animal of snake-like shape, named Doliclio- saurus, from the English Chalk. One extinct order must, however, be mentioned — the Pythonomokpha. They were truly aquatic reptiles with remarkable elongated snake-like bodies ; the skull resembled certain Lizards, such as Varanus ; the teeth are large and conical and fixed by tumid bases to the supporting bones ; the pterygoid bones also bear teeth like those on the jaw. We are familiar with the remains of the Great Mosasaurus from the Upper Chalk of Maestricht, Holland, and the more complete remains of Platecarpus from the Chalk of Kansas. Clidastcs is also found in the Chalk of America. Snakes occur in the Eocene of Sheppey, and of Bracklesham ; they have also been obtained of large size by Dr. Andrews, in beds of similar age in Egypt. Large lizards occur in early Tertiary times in Europe and in Queensland, Australia, related to Varanus. The Dinosauria form a singular group of very large terrestrial reptiles now entirely extinct. They all possessed limbs suited to progression on the land, and capable of sustaining the body in either a quadrupedal position or erect, supported on the hind-limbs and tail, like the kangaroo. The tail was of large size, and they were probably good swimmers. Some were no doubt amphibious in habit, the caudal appendage being expanded vertically and well adapted to assist in aquatic progression. The hind-quarters in a large number of forms are disproportionately massive as if to support the body in an erect position, whilst the fore-limbs were often exceedingly small. Some of the Dinosaurs had very massive and others very light, strong, and hollow bones ; the teeth in the latter were adapted to a carnivorous diet, while the worn surfaces of the former show that they were herbivorous in habit ; two or more of the sacral vertebra? are fused together to support the pelvis. The earliest Dinosaurs appear in the Triassic deposits ; a small, nearly complete, carnivorous Dinosaur was obtained in 1884 from the Trias of Connecticut Kiver Series — the Anchisaurus colurus ; these Connecticut Sandstones have long been famous for the re- markable foot-prints preserved upon' their slabs formerly ascribed to birds ; Marsh has now shown them to have been made by this small Dinosaur Anchisaurus. Another little reptile of car- nivorous habit, about the size of a rabbit, with greatly elongated hind limbs suggesting the generic name of Hallopus or " Leaping- foot," from its probable mode of progression, occurs in the Jurassic strata of Colorado. A third minute carnivorous form (Compsogna- thus) occurs in the Lithographic stone of Solenhofen ; these are among the smallest of the class. One of the largest predaceous forms was Ceratosaurus (0. nasi- ■comis Marsh), measuring some 18 ft. in length and standing nearly 15 ft. from the ground. It had a horn-core on the nasal 146 Transactions of the Society. bone ; the bones of the pelvis and the metatarsals are all eo-ossified", as in existing birds. The premaxillaries each contained three, and the maxillaries had each fifteen, large, powerful, and trenchant teeth, clearly indicating (as in our own Oolitic Megalosaurus) the ferocious character of the animal. Of the other carnivorous Dinosaurs of the American Jurassic, three forms, Allosaurus, Crcosaurus, and Labrosaurus, are specially worthy of notice. They were the natural enemies of the gigantic herbivorous forms that were so abundant in the same period. All had powerful jaws, sharp, cutting teeth, and a flexible neck. The fore-limbs were quite small, and the feet (manus and pes) were armed with strong claws for seizing their living prey. The hind- limbs were large and strong, and the animals probably used these alone either in running or leaping, or for ordinary locomotion. The herbivorous Dinosaurs comprising the Sauropoda are the most primitive and gigantic forms of the group. Atlantosaurus^ is only known from imperfect remains ; but the pelvic bones and femur of A. immanis give an idea of its gigantic size. The femur is over 6 ft. in length, and this, with the other portions of the skeleton, indicate (says Marsh) an animal about 70 or 80 ft. in length ! Brontosaurus is known from nearly an entire skeleton, which measured more than 60 ft. in length. The head is remarkably small, probably smaller in proportion to the body than in any other known reptile. The neck is long and flexible, the body short, the tail much elongated. There are about thirteen cervical vertebra?, with a very small neural canal and no neural spines. The hatchet-shaped ribs are fused with the anterior cervicals but free on those behind. Its skeleton is distinguished among Dino- saurs by the peculiar lightness of its vertebral column, the cervical, dorsal, and sacral vertebrae, all having very large cavities in their centra ; the first three caudals, also, are lightened by excavations in their sides. An animal fully equal in size to Brontosaurus, named Cetio- saurus, has been obtained from the Oxford Clay of Peterborough, and, although imperfect, the skeleton shows it to have been as large as the American form.* The Sauropodous Dinosaurs, of which Cetiosaurus and Diplodo- cus are examples, are the largest known four-footed animals. Their weight must have been so great that it is difficult to believe they were active on the land. Their remains are often found in marine deposits, and Prof. E. D. Cope has suggested that, like the extinct sea-cow {Bhytina), they may have lived on the sea-shore browsing; * This specimen may be seen exhibited in the Reptilian Gallery of the Geo- logical Department, British Museum of Natural Hi.-tory, Cromwell Road, haviug- been lately set up by the present Keeper. Dr. Arthur Smith Woodward, F.R.S. The= specimen was obtained by A. N. Leeds, Esq., F.G.S., Eyebury, mar Peterborough. TJtc President's Address. By Dr. H. Woodward. 147 on the sea-weeds just below low-water mark. This theory would afford an explanation of the long, slender neck. The animal, on account of its great weight, would be able to walk in tolerably- deep water and reach the surface to breathe, by means of its neck without the necessity of swimming. Another remarkable form met with in America is named Diplodocus. The orbits are large and placed far back in the cranium ; the facial portion is elongated and broadened in front; the nasal opening is very large and placed near the apex of the skull. The teeth are very weak, slender, and cylindrical in shape, like a row of bluntly rounded pins, and are all crowded to the front of the jaw, twenty-six above and twenty below, forty-six in all. No- restoration of this Dinosaur has been attempted, but it is believed to have been from 40 ft. to 50 ft. in length. The teeth indicate a herbivorous diet, the animal feeding largely upon succulent vege- tation, and the position of the nares seems to indicate an aquatic mode of life. Morosaurus is placed near to Diplodocus. The limbs suggest a plantigrade progression, as in Brontosaurus. There does not appear to be any representative of Diplodocus out of North America. Some of the Dinosaurs had a remarkable defensive armour : for instance, Stcgosaurus had a row of enormous vertical plates forming a single series and reaching from the head to the tail, the extremity being armed by one or more pairs of large spines ; the head was very small, as in Brontosaurus. We have in this country an inter- esting example of an armoured Dinosaur in Scelidosaurus Harrisoni from the Lias of Dorsetshire ; the back was protected by plates and spines ; there were also lateral rows of smaller tubercles ; the head was small and furnished with teeth, like those in the Iguanodon. Triccratops was a large Cretaceous Dinosaur, the head being 6 ft. in length and broad in proportion ; it had a huge bony frill margined by tubercles, covering the back of the neck and joined to the skull. A pair of bony horns were placed, one over each eye, covered in life by a horny sheath, and a smaller central one over the nasal bones ; the extremity of the beak was provided with a horny bill, both in the lower and upper mandible. The cheek teeth are very singular among reptiles, having two distinct roots, placed transversely in the jaw, with a separate cavity for each fang ; this structure in the teeth is truly remarkable, being charac- teristic of the Mammalia. One of the earliest Dinosaurs known in this country is the Iguanodon, originally described by Dr. Mantell and more fully by Prof. Owen, but neither of these anatomists had anything but very imperfect remains and detached bones to guide them in arriving at a correct idea of the form of the entire animal. Mr. Water- house Hawkins, in 1857, commenced a series of restorations of 148 Transactions of the Society. extinct animals for the Crystal Palace Company at Sydenham, then in its palmy days. Among these restorations may still he seen the Iguanodon, represented as a pentaaaetyle four-footed beast, the fore and hind limbs being of equal length. From the remark- able discoveries made of late years in the Wealden deposits at Bernissart in Belgium, we now know the true character of the entire skeleton of the Iguanodon, a reproduction of the Brussels Museum skeleton being set up in the Natural History Museum in Cromwell Eoad. The proportion between the fore and hind limbs is truly re- markable ; the tail was of very great length ; the hind feet were provided with three toes, and closely resemble in their digits the foot of ordinary birds ; the fore limbs are very much shorter than the hind limbs, and have the full complement of five digits. In an erect position, the animal would measure 15 ft. in height, and about twice that in length ; the only defensive armour consisted of a strong spine on the thumb of each hand, covered in life by a horny sheath ; the cheek teeth, which are very numerous in the sides of the jaw, were — by the trituration of their food (which was of a vegetable nature) — worn fiat on their tops, like the molar teeth in horses. Instead of front teeth, there was a horny covering to the jaws above and below, resembling the beak in the Tortoise or Turtle, by means of which they cropped their food. Remains of the carnivorous form of Dinosaur, the Mcgalosaurus, are only imperfectly preserved to us, but from its teeth, limbs, and vertebra we know that it was predaceous in habit, its teeth being adapted for cutting and tearing flesh, not vegetable food ; the feet and hands were armed with sharp claws, like those of carnivorous mammals of the present day. In this group of reptiles, which formerly occupied nearly the whole terrestrial field in the Secondary period, we find the same arrangement as among existing mammals, that is to say, many and very numerous forms of Herbivora, mostly slow-moving, heavy beasts, and a few types of very active and formidable Carnivora, whose business it was to keep down the excessive number of the Herbivora. Pterosauma, the flying Lizards, form a remarkable extinct order of Winged Reptiles only met with in the Secondary rocks. These animals had the centra of the vertebrae hollow in front ; they possessed a broad sternum, or " breast bone," with a median ridge or keel, similar to that of birds ; the jaws were usually armed with teeth fixed in sockets. The fore limbs had a short humerus, a long radius and ulna, and one of the fingers of the hand was enormously elongated to give support to the wing-membrane (patagium), which was attached to the sides of the body, the arm, the thumb, and the long finger, and also to the hind limb and tail. The other fingers of the hand were free, and furnished with claws. The wing- membrane appears to have resembled that of the Bat, being desti- The President's Address. By Dr. H. Woodward. 140 tute of feathers. The caudal series of vertebra in some genera (as in Bhamphorhynchus) was greatly elongated, and stiffened with slender ossified fibres. The bones were pneumatic (i.e. filled with air-cavities), the walls of the bones being very thin, and their substance very hard and compact, thus combining strength with lightness. A great American Pterodactyl, Pteranodon, with a head 4 ft. long, had its jaws armed with a horny bill and no teeth ; the expanded wings measured about 18 ft. across. The remains of another form, met with in the English Chalk of Kent, had its jaws armed with teeth, and possessed wings of equal expanse. The Dimorphodon, from the Lias of Lyme Regis, had a rather large head, armed with lancet-like teeth, and a long rigid tail, which served — like the same organ in Bhamphorhynchus, from the lithographic stone of Bavaria — as a rudder to steer by, being provided with an expanded membrane near its extremity, like the blade of a canoe-paddle. Many forms, varying greatly in size, some no bigger than a sparrow, others as large as Pteranodon, existed in the Lias, Oolites, Greensand and Chalk, but they have all now disappeared, and left no representatives behind among living beings. The Crocodilia make their appearance in the Keuper and Lias and are well represented by long and broad-headed forms in the Secondary and Tertiary periods, but they offer but few points of interest, save to the comparative anatomist, by which to separate them specially from living forms. The Crocodiles belong to Pro- fessor Owen's group the Procoelia, having the vertebrae concave in front ; this includes the long-snouted Garials, as well as the short- headed Alligators and Crocodiles, and various Tertiary forms. The Secondary genera belong to Owen's Amphiccelia, in which the vertebra? are concave .at both ends. Belodon, in the Keuper of Stuttgart, and Stagonolejris, in the Trias of Elgin, are among the oldest forms. AVES. — Birds are so similar to reptiles in all the most essen- tial features of their organisation, that they may be said to be merely extremely modified and aberrant forms of the reptilian type ; still, the differences which they present are sufficiently great to justify their being placed in a distinct class. Another reason why Birds are placed in an intermediate position between the Eeptilia and Mammals is because, whilst their bony skeleton most closely relates them to the Eeptilia, yet the fact that the chambers of the heart in Birds are completely separated, as in Mammals, the blood in consequence possesses a high temperature — in spite of all the changes of external variations to which they are subjected — the loss of heat being provided against by the clothing of down and feathers, which preserves them from cold, just as the thick coat of hair and wool does in the Mammalia. The most ancient type of birds was supposed to be some gigantic forms of struthious birds, such as the Ostrich, Bhea, Emu, 150 Transactions of the Society, Cassowary or Apteryx ; but the bird-like footprints in the Trias, which gave support to this belief, were not accompanied by any osseous remains. When such remains were met with, they proved that the supposed footprints of great Eatite birds were really made by bird-footed bipedal reptiles. When a feathered fossil was first discovered, its bony skeleton, although accompanied by impressions of feathers, presented so many points of resemblance with the Eeptilia, as to lead the German naturalist Wagner to name it Gryphornis. This bird, the Archceopteryx, was obtained from the lithographic stone of Solenhofen, Bavaria, and exhibited a tail elongated like that of a lizard, comprising some twenty free vertebra?, each bearing a pair of feathers. The pelvis was not constructed of a large number of anchylosed vertebrae, but had only two or three vertebras coalesced with the iliac bones ; the vertebras were either amphiccelous or with flat ends ; the sternum is not well known, but the furculum resembles that of modern carinate birds. The wing was small, with three free digits, each terminated by a claw. It is not certain if the metacarpal bones were fused together or not ; the hind limb is essentially Avian, but the tibia does not show the usual cnemian crest. In addition to the characters of the tail and wing-bones, the skull also — which was very imperfectly preserved in the first example — is now known (from a second example pre- served in the Berlin Museum), to have been furnished with a series of conical teeth, both in the upper maxillae and the mandible. The foot is that of a true perching bird. The next example of a fossil bird met with is from the Upper Chalk of Kansas, in America, and makes us acquainted with a huge fish-eating ratite bird, resembling in general form the loons and grebes. The Bcsperornis, which was apparently destitute of wings, possessed a long neck, and elongated skull ; the margins of both jaws are provided with very numerous teeth arranged in grooves, not in distinct sockets. There are twenty-three pre-sacral vertebras united with saddle-shaped articulations, like those of modern birds, seventeen being cervical vertebras ; fourteen are fused together in the much-extended sacrum, and there are twelve caudals, eight or nine of which are free. The femur is remarkably short, thick, and flattened ; the tibia- tarsus is the largest bone in the skeleton, and very stout and powerful, its legs and feet being admirably adapted for swimming and diving ; there are four digits in the foot, the fourth or outer toe being much the largest. One specimen discovered shows traces of feathers, which were soft and plume-like over the whole body. The Hcspcrornis rcgalis attained a height of 3 ft. 6 in. when standing. On account of its ratite breast-bone, and its rudi- mentary wings, it has been spoken of by Marsh as " the swimming ostrich." The President's Address. By Dr. H. Woodward. 151 Another Cretaceous bird, Ichthyornis victor, also from Kansas, appears to have been possessed of powerful flight, with a strongly- formed and deeply carinate breast-bone ; the beak being like Hesperomis armed with teeth, but implanted in distinct sockets. The vertebrce were bi-concave, as is the case with a few recent and many extinct reptiles. The Odontopteryx toliapicus, from the London Clay of Sheppey, also had a powerful serrated bill well adapted for seizing fishy prey. An imperfect skull of a large bird, from Sheppey, probably allied to the ostrich, is named Dasomis Londinicnsis. We have another struthious bird, Gastornis Klaaseni, from the lower Eocene of Croydon, as large as an ostrich but more robust. A similar bird, Gastornis jxirisiensis, was found in the Eocene of Meudon, near Paris. Fossil bird remains have not unfrequently been met with in the Miocene-Tertiary beds of Allier, La Grive-St. Alban, in France, the Brown Coal of Bonn, and from Oeningen in Switzerland. Another fossil Ostrich comes from the Miocene of the Siwalik Hills in India. But the most wonderful assemblage of fossil bird remains met with anywhere has been found in the islands of New Zealand. Here since first these birds were isolated and left alone unmolested to increase and multiply, undisturbed by man the destroyer, or by any carnivorous mammal ; with only two possible enemies, a large vulturine bird Harpagornis, and the "Kea" parrot which, is carnivorous in its habits ; — for untold centuries they remained and flourished until the advent of the Maoris, who commenced their steady destruction, which must have gone on probably for hundreds of years. Mr. Commissioner Mantell discovered at Poverty Bay the native ovens where the Maoris prepared their repasts, and where the bony remains of hundreds of these birds were found associated with the charcoal of the fires in which they had been cooked. They were probably living as lately as down to the first visits paid to New Zealand by white men in 1642 ;* or even when Capt. Cook, the navigator, sailed around the islands in 1769-70, and took - possession of them for the British Government ; they however remained uncolonised by the English until the year 1840. The Maoris, being cannibals, created some little trouble, as after exterminating all the wingless birds, they proceeded to Chatham Islands, 500 miles distant from New Zealand, where they devoured all the natives. Some idea may be formed of the enormous length of time during which these great Eatite birds, Dinornithidce, must have lived undisturbed, from the fact that some twenty species have been described, varying in size from animals 12 ft. or more in * These Islands were first discovered by Tasman in 1G42. 152 Transactions of the Society. height down to individuals but little bigger than the existing Kiwi or Apteryx. It is quite possible that these great wingless birds, which must have existed in thousands, judging by their remains, once occupied a land area far larger than the existing islands of New Zealand. Of wingless birds on these islands the Apteryx alone survives. In the adjacent continent of Australia two species, the Emu and the Cassowary are living, and two other forms named Drom- ornis and Genyornis are extinct. On the island continent of Madagascar, near the coast of Africa, the JEpyomis was once equally abundant, and like the Dinomis in New Zealand was represented by several well-marked species, some of which attained a size as great as that of the Dinomis ; and the eggs which have been very commonly found in the sands of Madagascar, surpass in size those of any bird's egg known, living or extinct. On the neighbouring continent of Africa, the Ostrich still survives. In South America another struthious bird also exists, named the Ehea, and a fossil bird of very great size, the Pliororhachos, from the Tertiary of Patagonia, which was probably as tall as the Dinomis and destitute of the power of flight. It is not positively known whether the great series of wingless Birds, the Eatitce or Eaft-breasted Birds, originally belonged to one family or not ; they are now certainly very widely separated on the great Southern land-areas, and if they have sprung from a common ancestor in the past, they afford remarkable evidence of the high antiquity of Birds on the surface of the earth. One wingless bird, the Dodo, found only on the Island of Mauritius, was probably exterminated more than 250 years ago by man. The Dodo was a great wingless ground pigeon, which had lost by disuse the power of flight, and so fell an easy prey to the early Dutch navigators, who devoured them all. The Mascarene Islands were also the ancient home of the Solitaire (Pezohaps) which inhabited the island of Bodiguez, the " weka " or wood-hen (Erythromachus), a great species of crake, and several other birds now quite extinct. The Penguins (Spheniscidcc) have fossil representatives in New Zealand and Patagonia. They range at the present day from South America to the Falkland Islands, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and most of the Antarctic lands, but are not met with north of the Equator. The Great Auk (Alca impennis), though separated from its representatives in the Antarctic, is a corresponding type of fish- eating, diving, wingless birds, in which the wing no longer functions as a wing, but rather as the fore-arm or flipper of an aquatic mammal or reptile : it is, in fact, only used in swimming. Once common on all the Arctic lands, just as the Penguin is at the present day on the Antarctic coasts and islands, it lived around the The President's Address. By Dr. H. Woodward. 153 shores of Scotland, Iceland, Faroe Islands, Greenland, and the shores of Newfoundland, but since the year 1844 it has been completely exterminated by man. Mammalia. — In the earlier groups of the Vertebrata which we have already considered, the young have, as a rule, been deposited by the parent enclosed in an egg, while in a few instances they have been found to be hatched before birth, as in the case of the Viper among Reptiles, the Blenny among Fishes, the Scorpion in the Arachnida, the Flesh-Fly, and the Earthworm. Among Mam- malia in general, the foetus is nourished by the parent before birth by a vascular membrane called the placenta, in which it is en- closed, and when born it has usually attained a certain amount of growth ; in fact, the young are born alive, and are suckled by the parent until sufficiently advanced to be able to feed themselves. Birds, we have seen, are clothed in feathers, but the Mammalia have instead a hairy covering, which is seldom entirely absent even in huge aquatic forms like the whales ; whilst a few large, apparently-naked, terrestrial, tropical species possess hairs on certain parts of the body : for instance, the Cetacea have short bristles at least on the lip ; animals like the Elephant and the Hippopotamus have some hairs, whilst the extinct Mammoth had a complete hairy and woolly covering. Mammals, chen, may be described as warm- blooded, hairy animals, the head being attached to the vertebral ■column by a double-occipital condyle. They are viviparous (bring- ing forth their young alive), and the young are suckled by a secretion, known as milk, furnished by the mammary glands. The earliest mammals known belong to the Prototheria. Prototheria : Multituberculata. — Two living examples of the Monotremata {Ornithorhynchus and Echidna), small, toothless, burrowing animals, probably represent the sole survivors of the first-known mammals of the Trias, the Stonesfield Slate, and the Purbeck Beds. There is a remarkable resemblance between the early-shed teeth of the immature Ornithorhynchus and the multituberculate molars in certain small jaws found in Mesozqic and Eocene strata. Some of the forms originally placed by Owen among the earliest mammals, as, for instance, Tritylodon, from the Trias of South Africa, are now referred to the Anomodont Pteptiles, with Cyno- gnathus, etc. Those still considered to represent early mammals are placed in the Multituberculata, on account of the number of tubercles borne on the molar teeth ; the most interesting of these are Amphilestcs, Phascolotherium, and Stereognathus, from the Great Oolite Stonesfield, and Plagiaulax, Microlcstcs, Bolodon, Allodon, Ctenacodon, from the Purbeck Beds — all these represent extremely small animals, not bigger than a rat or a mouse. Polymastodon is represented by somewhat larger animals, one being equal in size to a kangaroo ; the teeth are on the rodent pattern, with cutting April 20th, 1904 M 154 Transactions of the Society. incisors, the molars and premolars being tubercular. Numerous remains of these small mammals have been met with in this country, in America, and in France, the earliest being the Droma- thcrium sylvestre, from the Trias of North Carolina. Monotremata. — The lowest type of living mammals (the Mono- tremata) are oviparous, the egg being apparently placed by the female in the marsupium or pouch of the mother, the young re- maining attached to the parent until able to feed themselves. Metatheria: Marsupialia. — In the Marsupialia, which com- prise the kangaroos and wombats, the young is not enclosed in an egg at birth, but is produced as a very minute and immature foetus, and placed by the parent in the marsupial pouch, where it becomes attached to the mammary gland, and is carried in this receptacle until able to run alone. The kangaroos and wombats are almost entirely confined at the present day to Australia, but one genus, Didelphys, is found living in South America, while fossil remains occur in Tertiary deposits in Europe. Possibly some of the small extinct mammals, whose remains have been found in the Purbeck and Stonesfield Slate, may have belonged to the Marsupialia. In Tertiary times, animals of very large size, such as the Diprotodon, the Nototherium, and Thylacoleo existed in numbers upon the Australian continent ; but these are all now extinct, and only the existing Kangaroos, the small Wombats, and Opossums, survive. Eutheria : Placental Mammals. — The origin of the two groups of marine placental mammals, the Cetacea and Sircnia, still remains uncertain, and Palaeontology does not afford us any information thereon. Cetacea. — The largest of all living or extinct animals belong to the whale tribe, probably the great Eight-whale, measured not short of 100 ft. in length and was many tons in weight ; the Cetacea are all warm-blooded mammals, and have probably been derived from Terrestrial ancestors who at some distant period took up an aquatic existence probably within the tropics ; the body in these animals is not clothed in fur, but beneath the skin is a thick layer of fat ("blubber") which as effectually protects the vital organs from the cold in its watery home, as does the fur of any arctic animal on the land. The remains of Cetacea, particularly of the Toothed Whales, the Sperm Whale, the Dolphin, etc., are met with in deposits of later Tertiary age, such as the Crag of Suffolk and of Antwerp. The earliest known Cetacea (Zevglodon) were provided with cheek teeth with double fangs ; whereas the later Cetacea have no distinction in the teeth in their jaws, which are all simple one- fanged teeth of the same pattern. In the Eight-whales, teeth, except in the foetus, are unknown, their place being taken by horny plates of whalebone known as baleen, which differs greatly The President's Address. By Dr. H. Woodward. 155 from teeth, being produced from the ephithelium, the cuticular covering of the lips. Sirenia. — The Sirenia form an entirely distinct group of re- markable aquatic vegetable-feeding animals, subsisting entirely on the aquatic plants in rivers, and on the great beds of laminaria and other sea-weeds, which grow just below low-water and especially abound in the North Pacific Ocean. Numerous species formerly existed in the Old World whose remains are met with in Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene strata in Europe, North Africa, in our own Crag formation, as well as in that of Antwerp. One huge form, about 20 ft. in length, known as " Steller's sea-cow," Rhytina f/igas, was living on the coast of Behring and Copper Island, off Kamchatka, between 1740 and 1780, but it was en- tirely exterminated by the hand of man. The adult animal was apparently edentulous (the young only being furnished with milk- teeth) ; instead of teeth there were horny palates on the upper and lower surface of the mouth, which, being strongly ribbed trans- versely, served in place of teeth. Two other surviving forms : one, the Manatee, inhabiting the shores and rivers of both sides of the Atlantic, near the line of the equator, and met with in the Congo in Africa, and the Amazons and Orinoco in South America ; the other species, the Dugong {Halicore), being confined to the shores and islands of the Indian Ocean, the Bed Sea, and the eastern shores and northern coasts of Australia. Both these forms, being restricted to those localities where sea- weeds and other aquatic plants abound, on which they feed, are rapidly being exterminated by man. Some years ago a company was formed on the east coast of Australia for the production of dugong oil ; so that the Halicore australis will soon be a thing of the past. No doubt these forms were at one time derived from terrestrial ancestors. The teeth in the Manatee are tuberculated molars resembling those of the pig and the hippopotamus. The teeth in the Dugong are of a more simple form and fewer in number. The Ehytina, as before stated, had no teeth. The hind limbs in all these Sirenians are only indicated by & rudiment within the body as is also the case in the Cetacea. The Sirenians retain free move- ments of the bones of the fore-arm, with separate motion between the humerus and the radius and ulna, which is lost in the Cetaceans, the whole fore-arm being rigid, moving only from the shoulder, thus forming a true flipper or fin. Although owing to their mode of life these two groups are purely aquatic in habit, yet they possess all the attributes of the mammalian class. They bring forth their young alive ; they are nourished by the milk of the parent, and the offspring enjoy the same tender care from the mother as do the young of terrestrial animals. Edentata. — The Edentata are not all toothless animals, as their m 2 156 Transactions of the Society. name would imply. Although without teeth in the front of the jaws, they yet possess cheek teeth ; the Ant-eaters, however, have no teeth. The existing forms are all of moderate size, being repre- sented by the Ant-eater Myrmccophaga, of which there are three species living in South America, two species of scaly Ant-eaters in Africa, and two in the East Indies. Orycteropus, the hairy Ant- eater, or " Aard-vark," of the Cape, is lound also in north-eastern Africa, and fossil in the island of Samos. The great body of Edentate animals are characteristic of South America ; there are, beside the Ant-eaters, many species of Armadillos and several forms of Tree-Sloths ; this group of animals is interesting also as affording illustrations of mammals, in some of which the hairy covering is quite subsidiary ; the scaly Ant-eaters having an entire covering of horny scales like some reptiles, whilst in the Armadillos the body and tail are provided with a coat of mail, having a thin horny surface with thick bony plates beneath. The modern Armadillos have a banded coat of bony, horny scales, arranged in rows, so as to enable the animal to roll